Handbook of Mechanical Engineering Terms

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Copyright © 2009, 1996, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
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PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
This revised edition of the book “HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING TERMS” is expected to be a source of information for
students, teaching faculties and practicing engineers in the field of mechanical
engineering.
About three hundred and fifty terms have been added in this revised edition.
Every effort has been made to include the terms in current use.
Suggestions and comments are welcomed from the readers, which may help
to improve this handbook.
K. K. Ramalingam
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
This handbook has been prepared to meet the need of an up-to-date

authoritative, yet concise compilation of the salient terms associated with
the broad field of Mechanical Engineering. This handbook is intended to
serve a twofold purpose.
First, it concentrates on and presents a brief description of the most important
currently used terms. It will give the reader a true and full understanding and
background of the meaning of the words that sooner or later will be needed
in any occupation or trade.
One point has been kept in mind, during the preparation of this handbook,
that will, cause it to differ from other works of its class. This is accomplished
by dividing the book into twenty six parts. These parts cover most of the
spectrum of Mechanical Engineering. In each part, the various terms have
been listed alphabetically.
Second, the book is available as in the general ready reference for the students
and engineers of various courses and fields pertaining to Mechanical
Engineering. It provides, in one convenient source, the brief explanations
scattered in various text books, reference books handbooks and journals.
Every effort has been made to include terms in current use. All definitions
have been expressed as clearly and simply as possible. Care has been exercised
to avoid errors.
Suggestions and comments are heartily welcomed from the readers which
may help to improve further editions of this handbook.
K. K. Ramalingam
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CONTENTS
Preface to the Second Edition v

Preface to the First Edition vii
1. General 1–10
2. Materials 11–37
3. Material Properties 39 –52
4. Processes 53–66
5. Machines and Devices 67–78
6. Machine Components and Attachments 79 –91
7. Tools and Cutters 93 –107
8. Instruments and Gauges 109–114
9. Casting 115 –127
10. Welding 129 –140
11. Heat and Surface Treatments 141–146
12. Mechanics of Machines 147–156
13. Material Handling 157–168
14. Friction, Lubrication and Bearings 169–178
15. Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 179–194
16. Fuels and Combustion 195–209
17. Steam Boilers 211–222
18. Steam Engines and Steam Turbines 223–232
19. Gas Turbines 233–244
20. Internal Combustion Engine Parts 245–264
21. Spark Ignition Engines 265–278
22. Compression Ignition Engines 279–287
23. Two Wheelers 289–299
24. Automotive Vehicles 301–331
25. Air Compressors 333–338
26. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 339–355
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CHAPTER
1
GENERAL
ACCURATE – Without error within tolerances allowed, precise, correct,

confirming exactly to standard.
ACHME THREAD – A screw thread having an included angle of 29° and
largely used for feed screws on machine tools.
ACUTE ANGLE – An angle which is less than a right angle, 90°.
ADDENDUM – The portion of the tooth of a gear that extends from the
pitch line to the outside.
ALIGN – To bring two or more components of a unit into correct positions
with respect to one another.
ALLOWANCE – The intentional or desired difference between the maximum
limits of mating parts to provide a certain class of fit.
ANGLE – The amount of opening or divergence between two straight lines
that meet at a vertex or that intersect each other.
ANGLE OF THREAD – The included angle between the sides forming the
groove of the screw thread.
ANNULUS – A figure bounded by concentric circles or cylinders (e.g., a
washer, ring, sleeve etc.).
ARC – A circular section of the circumference of a circle bounded by two
equal radii.
ASSEMBLY – A unit that contains the parts that make up a mechanism or a
machine.
AXIS – The line real or imaginary, which passes through the center of a body
and about which the body would rotate if set revolving.
2 Handbook of Mechanical Engineering Terms
BACKLASH - The clearance or amount of movement between the tooth

profiles of a pair or train of gears in mesh. Also refers to the looseness or
lost motion between screw threads which have been badly worn.
BAFFLE - A device which slows down or diverts the flow of gases, liquid,
sound etc.
BASIC SIZE - The theoretical or nominal standard size from which all
variations are made.
BASTARD - Not standard, irregular. A bastard cut file is a rough cut file
having coarse teeth than a second cut file.
BELL MOUTHED HOLE - A hole which is rounded or tapered slightly
larger at one end or both ends and is not exactly cylindrical throughout
its entire length.
BEVEL - Any surface not at right angle to the rest of the workpiece. If a
bevel is at a 45° angle, it is frequently called a MITER.
BIMETALLIC STRIP - A strip of metal consisting of one metal (or alloy)
in the top portion bonded to a different metal in the bottom portion.
A straight strip becomes curved when heated.
BLIND HOLE - A hole which is made to a certain depth of a workpiece
but does not pass through it.
BISECTING AN ANGLE - Dividing an angle into two equal parts.
BOND - The holding together of different parts.
BORE - The inside diameter of a cylinder, or a hole for a shaft. Also the
operation of machining a circular hole in a metal workpiece.
BRUSH - Pieces of carbon or copper that make a sliding contact against the
commutator or slip rings.
CAM - A plate or cylinder which transmits variable motion to a part of a
machine by means of a follower.
CAP SCREW - A finished screw 5mm or larger, used for fastening two
pieces together by passing the screw through a clearance hole in one
part and screwing in into a tapped hole in the other.
CENTER - A fixed point about which the radius of a circle or an arc moves.
CENTER LINE - A line used on drawings to show the centers of objects
and holes. The center line consists of alternate long and short dashes.
General 3
CHAMFER – To bevel or remove the sharp edge of a machined part.

CHECK VALVE – A valve which permits flow in one direction only.
CIRCULAR PITCH – The distance from the center of one gear tooth to
the center of the next gear tooth measured on the pitch line.
CIRCUMFERENCE – A curved line forming a circle and the length of this
line.
COIL SPRING – A spring steel wire wound in a spiral pattern.
COMMUTATOR – A number of copper bars connected to the armature
windings but insulated from each other and from the armature.
CONVOLUTION – One full turn of screw.
CORE – The central or innermost part of an object.
COUNTER BORING – The operation of enlarging a portion of a hole for
part of its depth and to a given diameter, as for the head of a fillister
head screw.
COUNTER SINK – To cut or shape a depression in an object so that the
head of a screw may set flush or below the surface.
CREST CLEARANCE – Defined on a screw form as the space between the
top of a thread and the root of its mating thread.
CREST OF SCREW THREAD – The top surface joining the two sides of
flanks of a thread.
CROWNED – A slight curve in a surface e.g., on a roller or race way.
DEDENDUM – The depth of a gear tooth space below the pitch line or
circle. Also, the radial distance between the pitch circle and the root
circle, which also includes the clearance.
DIAPHRAGM – A flexible dividing partition separating two compartments.
DOUBLE FLARE – A flared end of the tubing having two wall thickness.
DOWEL – A pin, usually of circular shape like a cylinder, used to pin or
fasten something in position temporarily or permanently.
DRIFT PIN – A round tapered steel pin used to align rivet holes so that the
rivet will pass through the holes easily.
ECCENTRIC – A circle or cylinder having a different center from another
coinciding circle or cylinder. Also, a device for converting rotary motion
to reciprocating motion.
END PLAY – As applied to a shaft, the amount that the shaft can move
backward and forward.
EYE BOLT – A bolt threaded at one end and bent to a loop at the other end.
FEATHER – A sliding key, sometimes called splint. Used to prevent a pulley,
gear or other part from turning on a shaft but allows it to move
lengthwise. The feather is usually fastened to the sliding piece.
FILLET – A concave surface connecting the two surfaces meeting at an angle.
FLANGE – A metal part which is spread out like a rim, the action of working
a piece or part to spread out.
FLANK (Side of thread) – The straight part of the thread which connects
the crest with the root.
FLARE – To open or spread outwardly.
FULCRUM – The pivot point of a lever.
FLUSH – When the surfaces of different parts are on the same level, they are
said to be flush.
FLUTE – A straight or helical groove of angular or radial form machined in
a cutting tool to provide cutting edges and to permit chips to escape
and the cutting fluid to reach the cutting edges.
GATE VALVE – A common type of manually operated valve in which a
sliding gate is used to obstruct the flow of fluid.
GEAR – A general term applied to types of toothed wheels, valve motion,
pump works, lifting tackle and ropes.
GEARING – A train of gears or an arrangement of gears for transmitting
motion in a machinery.
GIB – An angular or wedge like strip of metal placed between two machine
parts, usually sliding bearings, to ensure a proper fit and provide
adjustment for wear.
GLAND – A device to prevent the leakage of gas or liquid past a joint.
HAND WHEEL – Any of the various wheels found on machine tools for
moving or positioning parts of the machine by hand feed, as the tailstock
handwheel on a lathe.
HALF MOON KEY – A fastening device in a shape somewhat similar to a
semicircle.
General 5
HELICAL GEAR – A gear in which the teeth are cut at some angle other
than a right angle across the gear face.
HELICOIL – A thread insert used to repair worn or damaged threads. It is
installed in a retapped hole to bring the screw thread down to original
size.
HELIX – The curve formed by a line drawn or wrapped around a cylinder
which advances uniformly along the axis for each revolution, as the
thread on a screw or the flute on a twist drill. A helix is often called a
spiral in the shop.
HELIX ANGLE OF A THREAD – The angle made by the helix of the
thread at the pitch diameter line with a line at right angle to the axis.
HEXAGONAL NUT – A nut having six sides and shaped like a hexagon.
INVOLUTE GEAR TOOTH – A curved tooth generated by unwinding a
string from a cylinder to form the curve.
JOURNAL – The part of a shaft or axle that has been machined or finished
to fit into a bearing.
KEYS – Metal pieces of various designs that fit into a slot in a shaft and
project above the shaft to fit into a mating slot in the center hole of a
gear or pulley to provide a positive drive between the shaft and the gear
or pulley.
KEYSEAT – The slot or recessed groove either in the shaft or gear, which is
made to receive the key. Also, it is called a KEYWAY.
KNURL – A uniform roughened or checked surface of either a diamond, a
straight or other pattern.
LAND – The top surface of a tooth of cutting tools, such as taps, reamers
and milling cutters.
LEAD ANGLE – The angle of the helix of a screw thread or worm thread. It
is the measure of the inclination of a screw thread from a plane
perpendicular to the axis of the screw.
LEAD HOLE – A small hole drilled in a workpiece to reduce the feed
pressure, aid in obtaining greater accuracy, and guide a large drill.
Sometimes called PILOT HOLE.
LEAD OF THREAD – On a single threaded screw, the distance the screw
or nut advances in one complete revolution.
LEFT HAND SCREW – One that screws into the mating part or advances
when turned to the left or counter clockwise.
LIMITS OF SIZE – The minimum and maximum sizes permissible for
specific dimensions.
LINE – A tube, pipe or hose which is used as a conductor of fluid.
LINKAGE – A movable connection between two units.
LOBE – The projecting part such as rotor lobe or the cam lobe.
LOCK NUT – A type of nut that is prevented from loosening under vibration.
The locking action is accomplished by squeezing, gripping or jamming
against the bolt threads.
LOOSE PULLEY – A pulley which turns freely on a shaft so that a belt can
be shifted from the driving pulley to the loose pulley in order to stop a
machine driven by an overhead belt drive.
MAJOR DIAMETER – On a straight thread, the diameter of the imaginary
cylinder that just touches the crest of an external thread or the root of
an internal thread.
MALE PART – The external part of any workpiece which fits into a hole,
slot or groove of the mating part.
MANUAL VALVE – A valve which is opened or closed or adjusted by hand.
MESH – Engaging one part with another, as the teeth of one gear mesh with
the teeth of a mating gear.
MICRON – One millionth of a meter or 0.039370 inch.
MINOR DIAMETER – On a straight thread, the diameter of the imaginary
cylinder which just touches the root of an external thread or the crest of
an internal thread.
MORSE TAPER – A self holding, standard taper largely used on drilling
tools, drilling machine spindles, and some lathes.
MULTIPLE THREADED SCREW – A screw with two or more threads
cut around the periphery of the workpiece to provide an increased lead
with a specified pitch.
NUT – A metal fastener of square, hexagon or other shape, having an internal
thread which screws onto a bolt, stud or arbor.
General 7
OFF CENTER – Not on the true center line or axis, offset, eccentric or
inaccurate.
PEEN – The end of the head of a hammer opposite the face, such as ball,
straight or cross peen, and used for peening or riveting.
PILOT – A guide at the end of the counter bore which fits freely into the
drilled hole and align the body of the counterbore while cutting takes
place.
PILOT SHAFT – A shaft positioned in or through a hole of a component
as a means of aligning the components.
PILOT VALVE – A valve used to control the operation of another valve.
PINION – The smaller of the pair of gears regardless of the size or type.
PIPE THREAD – A 60° thread having flattened crest and roots which are
cut on a taper. Pipe thread is used on piping and tubing.
PITCH – In screw threads, the distance from a point on one thread to a
corresponding point on the next thread measured parallel to the axis. In
the case of spur gears, indicates the size of the gear teeth and is correctly
called diametral pitch.
PITCH DIAMETER – For screw threads, the diameter of an imaginary
cylinder, the surface of which would pass through the threads at such
points that would make the width of the groove and width of the land
equal to one half the pitch.
PLAY – The movement between two components.
PULLEY – A wheel having a plain or V groove rim over which a belt runs
for the transmission of power from one shaft to another.
QUILL – A hollow shaft that revolves on a solid shaft carrying pulleys, gears
or clutches. When the clutch is closed, the quill and shaft revolve
together.
RACK – A straight metal strip having teeth that mesh with those of a gear to
convert rotary into reciprocating motion or just the opposite.
RATCHET – A gear with triangular shaped teeth to be engaged by a pawl
which gives it intermittent motion or locks it against backward
movement.
RECESS – A groove cut below the normal surface of a workpiece.

RIGHT HAND THREAD – A screw thread which advances into the mating
part when turned clockwise or to the right.
RIVET – A one piece fastener consisting of a head and a body and used for
fastening two or more pieces together by passing the body through a
hole in each piece and then forming a second head on the body end. It
cannot be removed except by taking off the head.
SCREW – A helix formed or cut on a cylindrical surface which may advance
along the axis to the right or left. The helix may be single or multiple.
SCREW THREAD – A ridge of uniform section or shape in the form of a
helix on the external or internal surface of a cylinder, or in the form of
a conical spiral on the external or internal surface of a cone.
SET SCREW – Usually a hardened steel screw having either no head or a
square head and with various degrees of points or ends to lock or tighten
adjustable machine parts in position on a shaft.
SHOULDER SCREW – A screw having two or more diameters or shoulders
and commonly used for supporting levers and other machine parts that
have to operate freely.
SINGLE THREAD – A screw thread cut around a cylinder having a single
start in which the lead is equal to the pitch.
SOCKET HEAD – Screw head having a hexagonal or other form of recessed
socket in the head so that the screw can be turned with a wrench or key,
as a hexagon key.
SPLINE – Slot or groove cut in a shaft or bore, a splined shaft onto which a
hub, wheel, gear etc. with matching splines in its bore is assembled so
that the two must turn together.
SPOOL VALVE – A hydraulic directional control valve in which the direction
of the fluid is controlled by the means of a grooved cylindrical shaft
(spool).
SPRING – An elastic device which yields under stress or pressure but returns
to its original state or position when the stress or pressure is removed.
SPUR GEAR – A toothed wheel having external radial teeth.
SQUARE THREAD – A form of screw thread in which the cross–section of
the thread forms a square, making the width of the thread equal to the
space between the threads.
General 9
STEP BLOCK – A block of steel or cast iron having a series of steps and used
for supporting the ends of machine clamps when clamping work to the
table.
STOPS – Devices attached to the movable parts of a machine tool to limit
the amount of travel.
STUD – A rod having thread on both ends.
STUFFING BOX – A chamber having manual adjustment device for sealing.
TAPER – A shaft or hole that gets gradually smaller toward one end.
TAPER PINS – Steel pins used for locating and holding the machine parts
in position on a shaft.
T-BOLT – A threaded bolt having a square or rectangular end which fits into
the T slot of a machine table for clamping workpieces.
TEMPLATE – A flat pattern or guide plate usually made from sheet metal
and used as a gauge or guide when laying out, drilling, forming in a
machine or filing irregular shapes on metal pieces.
THUMB SCREW – A type of screw having a winged or knurled head for
turning by hand when a quick and light clamping effect is desired.
TOLERANCE – A fractional allowance for variation from the specifications.
T-SLOT – A recessed or undercut slot made with a special T shaped cutter in
the tables of machine tools to receive the square head of a T bolt for
clamping workpiece.
U-BOLT – An externally threaded fastener bent in the shape of the letter U
and with both ends threaded.
VALVE – Any device or arrangement used to open or close an opening to
permit or restrict the flow of a liquid, gas or vapour.
V-BLOCKS – Square or rectangular shaped blocks of steel that are usually
hardened and accurately ground. These have 90° V groove through the
center and are provided with clamps for holding round workpiece for
laying out, drilling, milling etc.
VISE – A mechanical device of many designs and sizes in which work pieces
are clamped for hand or machine operations.
V-WAYS – The top of the bed of a lathe, planer or other machine tool which
acts as bearing surface for aligning and guiding the moving parts such as
the carriage of a lathe.
WORM – A threaded cylinder which meshes with and drives a worm gear,
the thread being specially designed to mate with the teeth in the worm
gear.
WORM GEARS – Gears with teeth cut at an angle to be driven by a worm.
The teeth are usually cut out with a hob to fit the worm.
CHAPTER
2
MATERIALS
ABRASIVE – A natural or artificial material such as sand stone, emery,

aluminium oxide or silicon carbide.
ACID – A chemical term to define a material which gives an acid reaction.
ADDITIVES – Chemicals added to oil or fuel to increase its effectiveness
and obtain desirable qualities.
ADHESIVES – Materials or compositions that enable two surfaces to join
together. An adhesive is not necessarily a glue, which is considered to be
a sticky substance, since many adhesives are not sticky.
AGGREGATE – Small particles such as powders that are used for powder
metallurgy, that are loosely combined to form a whole, also sand and
rock as used in concrete.
ALLOTROPIC METALS – Metals which exist in one lattice form over a
range of temperature, but at a certain temperature the lattice form changes
to another type which is stable over another temperature range.
ALLOY – A substance having metallic properties and is composed of two or
more chemical elements, of which at least one is a metal.
ALLOYING ELEMENTS – Elements either metallic or non-metallic added
intentionally to the base metal, to make a marked change in the
properties of the base metal and to secure certain desirable properties.
ALLOY STEEL – Steel containing significant quantities of alloying elements
(other than carbon and the commonly accepted amounts of manganese,
silicon, sulphur and phosphorus) added to effect changes in mechanical
and physical properties.
ALNICOS – Alnicos materials are composed mainly of aluminium, nickel,

cobalt and iron. Some include additions of copper and titanium. They
are high-coercive force, high magnetic energy alloys.
ALOXITE – Artificial abrasive material used in the manufacture of grinding
wheels. Essentially it consists of alumina, or aluminium oxide, the
chemical symbol for which is Al2O3·
ALPHA IRON – The body centered cubic form of pure iron, stable below
1025°C.
ALUMEL – A nickel base alloy containing about 2.5% Mn, 2% AI, and
1 % Si, used chiefly as a component of pyrometric thermocouples.
ALUMINIUM – Grayish white metal, very light in weight, and having in
its pure form low mechanical strength, frequently alloyed with other
elements to improve its physical characteristics.
ALUMINIUM ALLOY – Aluminium which is alloyed with other metals
to give it strength and desirable properties.
ALUMINIUM BRONZE – Alloy containing 90% copper and 10%
aluminium, extensively used for diecasting.
ANTIFREEZE – A chemical added to the coolant in order to lower its
freezing point.
ANTIFRICTION BEARINGS – Ball, roller and needle bearings exhibit
very low friction and are suitable for very high speeds, and high loading.
ANTIMONY – Brittle, bluish white metallic element designated Sb. Melting
point 630°C. Used as a constituent in some alloys, for instance, bearings
and storage battery plates.
ARGON – An inert gas used in certain welding and heat treatment processes.
ARSENIC – A brittle, grayish metallic element designated As. Melting point
814°C. Used as a constituent in some alloys, and in the manufacture of
lead shot.
ASBESTOS – A fibrous organic mineral that is non-combustible,
non-conducting and acid resistant.
ATOM – The smallest particle of an element.
AUSTENITE – A solid solution of iron and carbon and sometimes other
elements in which gamma iron, characterized by a face centered crystal
Materials 13
structure, is the solvent. This is stable only within a particular range of

composition and temperature, and is non-magnetic.
AUSTENITIC CAST IRON – Cast iron containing such a proportion of
alloying constituents (nickel, chromium, copper or manganese) that
the structure in the cast state is completely austenitic at ordinary
temperatures.
BABBITT METAL – White metal bearing alloy, suitable for bearings
subjected to moderate pressures, contains tin 59.5% min, copper 2.25-
3.75%, antimony 9.5-11.5%, lead 26% min, iron 0.08% max, bismuth
0.08% max.
BACKING SAND – Foundry sand placed next to the facing sand after the
latter is in place. It forms the bulk of sand used to complete the mould.
BAINITE – A structure in steel named after E.G. Bain that forms between
481° C and the M’s temperature. At the higher temperatures, it is known
as upper or feathery bainite. At the lower temperatures it is known as
lower or a acicular bainite and resembles martensite.
BAKELITE – Trade name for one of the first used thermo-setting synthetic
resins. It is derived from the name of the inventor Dr. L.H. Backeland,
and its formation is the result of a chemical action between formaldehyde
and phenol.
BAR – A piece of material thicker than sheet, long in proportions to its
width or thickness, and whose width to thickness ratio is much smaller
than sheet or plate, as low as unity for squares and rounds.
BARK – The decarborized layer just beneath the scale that results from heating
steel in an oxidizing atmosphere.
BASE METAL – Metal present in the alloy in largest proportion.
BEARING METALS – Metals (alloys) used for that part of a bearing which
is in contact with the journal e.g., bronze or white metal, used on account
of their low coefficient of friction when used with a steel shaft.
BELFAST SAND – Red moulding sand of fine grain, and good bonding
qualities with moderate refractoriness, suitable for use as a facing sand.
BELL METAL – High tin bronze, used in the casting of bells, which is
composed of up to 30% tin, together with some zinc and lead.
BESSEMER STEEL – Steel manufactured in a Bessemer converter, and
sometimes referred to as mild steel.
BILLET – A solid semifinished round or square product that has been hot
worked by forging, rolling or extrusion.
BLUE VITRIOL – A chemical mixture of copper sulphate, water and
sulphuric acid. Applied to polished metal for layout purposes, it turns
to copper colour.
BOND – In grinding wheels and other relatively rigid abrasive products, the
material that holds the abrasive grains together. In welding, the junction
of joined parts.
BORON CARBIDE – An abrasive used in cutting tools, a compound whose
chemical formula is B4 C and obtained from borontrioxide (B2O3) and
coke at a temperature of 2500°C. Fine powder as hard as diamond.
BRASS – A range of copper zinc alloys, usually those containing 55-80%
copper. Alloys containing not less than 63% of copper are called ALPHA
BRASSES. When less than 63% of copper is present, the alloy is called
ALPHA-BETA alloy.
BRAZING ALLOY – Copper zinc alloy, which sometimes includes small
percentages of tin, and lead, used for brazing, the melting point of
which is governed by the percentage of zinc.
BRINE – Water that has been saturated or nearly saturated with salt.
BRIQUETS – Compact cylindrical or other shaped blocks formed of finely
divided materials by incorporation of a binder, by pressure, or both.
Materials may be ferroalloys, metal borings or chips, silicon carbide etc.
BRONZE – A copper rich, copper tin, copper lead or copper beryllium alloy
to which often alloying elements (phosphorous, aluminium, zinc,
silicon) may be added. Usually bronze is a copper tin alloy containing
90% copper and 10% tin.
BUILDING BRICK – These are made from clay. Generally, the clay is
mixed with water to a plastic state and extruded in a column that is
wire-cut crosswise to the desired size. Occasionally the dry pressing
process is used.
CADMIUM – White ductile metallic element used to plate steel and as an
alloying element.
CALCIUM ALUMINIUM SILICON – An alloy composed of 10-14%
calcium, 8-12% aluminium, and 50-53% silicon used for degasifying
and deoxidizing steel.
Materials 15
CALCIUM BORIDE – An alloy of calcium and boron, containing about

61% boron and 39% calcium and used in deoxidation and degasification
of non-ferrous metals and alloys.
CALCIUM CARBIDE – A grayish black, hard crystalline substance made
in the electric furnace by fusing lime and coke. Addition of water to
calcium carbide forms acetylene and a residue of slaked lime.
CALCIUM MANGANESE SILICON – An alloy containing 17 to 19%
calcium, 8 to 10% manganese, 55 to 60% silicon and 10 to 14% iron,
used as a scavenger for oxides, gases and non-metallic impurities in
steel.
CALCIUM MOLYBDATE – A crushed product containing 40-50%
molybdenum, 23-25% lime, 3% iron (max) and 5-10% silica, used to
add molybdenum to iron and steel produced in open hearth, air furnace
or electric furnace.
CALCIUM SILICON – An alloy of calcium, silicon and iron containing
28-35% calcium, 60-65% silicon and 6% max iron used as a deoxidizer
and degasifier for steel and cast iron. Sometimes called CALCIUM
SILICIDE.
CAPPED STEEL – Semiskilled steel cast in a bottle top mould and covered
with a cap fitting into the neck of the mould. The cap causes the top
metal to solidify. Pressure is build up in the sealed in molten metal and
results in a surface condition much like that of RIMMED STEEL.
CARBIDE – A compound of carbon with one or more metallic elements.
CARBOHYDRATES – Constitute a large group of molecules, widely
distributed in nature, which contains only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
The simplest carbohydrates are sugars.
CARBON – A non-metallic element found in all organic substances that is
used as an alloying element in ferrous metals.
CARBON STEEL – Steel containing carbon up to about 2% and only
residual quantities of other elements except those added for deoxidation,
with silicon usually limited to 0.60% and manganese to about 1.65%.
Also termed PLAIN CARBON STEEL.
CARBORUNDUM – Artificially manufactured abrasive, trade name for a
carbide of silicon (SiC) which is prepared by heating sand with coke in
an electric furnace.
CARTRIDGE BRASS – Alloy containing about 70% copper and 30% zinc,
in which impurities are kept to a minimum, and it possesses a high
degree of strength, combined with good ductility.
CAST ALLOY TOOL – A cutting tool made by casting a cobalt base alloy
and used at machining speeds between those for high speed steels and
sintered carbides.
CAST IRON – Iron obtained by slightly purifying the pig iron in a cupola
or other furnace. This has high carbon content, averaging between 2.5
and 4.5% and frequently alloyed with small percentage of other elements
and primarily used for making castings. It is somewhat brittle.
CELLULOSE – A polysaccharide of glucose units that constitutes the chief
part of the cell walls of plants. For example, cotton fibre is over 90%
cellulose and is the raw material of many manufactured goods such as
paper, rayon and cellophane. In many plant cells, the cellulose wall is
strengthened by the addition of lignin, forming lignocellulose.
CEMENT – Material used for uniting other materials so that they adhere
permanently.
CEMENTED CARBIDE – A solid and coherent mass made by pressing and
sintering a mixture of powders of one or more metallic carbides, and a
much smaller amount of a metal, such as cobalt, to serve as a binder.
CEMENTITE – Hard, brittle, crystalline iron carbide (compound of iron
and carbon Fe3C) found in steels having a high carbon content. It is
characterized by an orthorhombic crystal structure. When it occurs as a
phase in steel, the chemical composition will be altered by the presence
of manganese and other carbide forming elements.
CERAMIC – Metallic oxides of metals such as silicon and aluminium.
CERAMIC MATERIALS – The materials that demonstrate great hardness and
resistance to heat and are used to make cutting tools, coatings on tools,
parts subjected to very hot conditions, abrasives and mechanical parts.
CERMET (Ceramal) – A body consisting of ceramic particles bonded with
a metal.
CESIUM 13T – A radioisotope, recovered as a fission product from nuclear
reactors, with a half-life of 33 years and a dominant characteristic gamma
radiation of 0.66 mev. It is suitable as a gamma radiation source,
especially in radiography and therapy.
Materials 17
CHILL – (1) A metal insert embedded in the surface of a sand mould or core
or placed in a mould cavity to increase cooling rate at that point. (2)
White iron occurring on a gray iron casting such as the chill in the
wedge test.
CHINESE SCRIPT – An angular microstructural form with the constituents
alpha (AI-Fe-Si) and alpha (AI-Fe-Mn-Si) in cast aluminium alloys. A
similar microstructure is found in cast magnesium alloys containing
silicon as Mg2Si.
CHROMEL – (1) 90% Ni, 10% Cr alloy used in thermocouples. (2) A
series of Nickel chromium alloys, some with iron, used for heat resistant
applications.
CHROMIUM – Grayish white metallic element obtained from chromite,
chemical symbol is Cr and melting point 1830°C, used in alloying
steels and corrosion resisting plating.
CLAD METAL – A composite material containing two or three layers that
have been bonded together. The bonding may have been accomplished
by rolling, welding, casting, heavy chemical deposition or heavy
electroplating.
COAL TAR – Also called crude oil, when subjected to fractional distillation
and purification, yields a variety of useful products-neutral, acidic, and
base oils.
COBALT-60 – A radio isotope with a half-life of 5.2 years and dominant
characteristic gamma radiation energies of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV. It is
used as a gamma radiation source in industrial radiography and therapy.
COLD FINISHED STEEL – Steel bar which has been cold drawn/cold
rolled, centerless ground or turned smooth to improve surface finish,
accuracy or mechanical properties.
COLD ROLLED STEEL – Steel which has been passed through rollers at
the steel mill to size it accurately and smoothly.
COLLOIDS – Finely divided material, less than 0.5 micron in size, gelatinous,
highly absorbent and sticky when moistened.
COLUMNAR STRUCTURE – A coarse structure of parallel columns of
grains having the long axis perpendicular to the casting surface.
COMBINED CARBON – The part of the total carbon in steel or cast iron
that is present as other than FREE CARBON.
COMPOSITE FIBRES – The strands of material used as reinforcement

extending through a resin or other matrix in a composite material. An
example is carbon fibres in an epoxy matrix. Loads applied to the
structure are carried by the fibres.
COMPOSITE MATERIAL – Materials exhibiting a much higher strength
than the matrix or base material because of reinforcement fibres.
CONDUCTORS (electrical) – Materials in which an electromotive force
causes appreciable drift of electrons, called CURRENT.
CONSTANTAN – A group of copper nickel alloys containing 45-60%
copper with minor amounts of iron and manganese and characterized
by relatively constant electrical resistivity irrespective of temperature
used in resistors and thermocouples.
CONVERSION COATING – A coating consists of a compound of the surface
metal produced by chemical or electro-chemical treatments of the metal.
COPPER – A reddish, soft, ductile metal with very good heat and electrical
conductivity and is the basic element in brass and bronze.
CORE – (1) In a metal casting, the hollow parts (which cannot be shaped as
easily by the pattern) that are made by using formed sand shapes, that
are strengthened by baking or by using epoxy. (2) In a ferrous alloy, the
inner portion that is softer than the outer portion or case.
CORE SAND – Variety of silica sand. Rock sand, river bed and sea shore
sand, commonly known as sharp sand, used for making of cores in the
foundry because they are capable of withstanding high temperatures,
and resisting the penetrating action of the molten metal.
CORUNDUM – Natural abrasive of the aluminium oxide type that has
higher purity than emery.
ROCUS CLOTH – A very fine abrasive polishing cloth.
CHROMIUM BRONZE – It is a precipitation hardening alloy of copper
with upto 1 per cent chromium. It has high electrical conductivity and
high temperature resistance.
CRUCIBLE – A vessel or pot, made of refractory substance or of a metal
with a high melting point, used for melting metals or other substances.
CRUCIBLE STEEL – A high grade steel made by melting iron in a crucible
and adding charcoal, pig iron and some substance rich in carbon so that
Materials 19
the resulting metal will contain from 0.75-1.5% carbon. This steel is
used for tools, dies and better grades of cutlery.
CRYSTAL – A solid composed of atoms, ions or molecules arranged in a
pattern which is repetitive in three dimensions.
CRYSTALLOID – A substance that forms a true solution and is capable of
being crystallized.
CUNIFE – Cunife is a copper-nickel iron alloy that is malleable, ductile and
machinable, even in an age-hardened form. Magnets are formed from
wire stock in round, square, or rectangular form.
CUPRO NICKEL ALLOY – Alloy of nickel and copper (approximately
60% nickel and 30% copper), which combines the strength of steel
with immunity from corrosion and resistance to high temperature.
CURIE – The quantity of a radioactive nuclide in which the number of
disintegrations per second is 3. 700 × 10 to the power of ten.
CUTTING FLUID – A fluid, usually a liquid, used in metal cutting to
improve finish, tool life or dimensional accuracy.
DEGASIFIER – A material employed for removing gases from metals and
alloys.
DELTA IRON – An allotropic (polymorphic) form of iron, stable above
1390oC, crystallizing in the body centered cubic lattice.
DENDRITE – A crystal that has tree like branching pattern, being most
evident in cast metals slowly cooled through the solidification range.
Dendrite generally grow inward from the surface of a mould.
DEOXIDIZER – A substance that is used to remove either free or combined
oxygen from molten metals, for example, ferrosilicon in steel making.
DEVELOPER – (1) In photography, a processing solution that reduces the
exposed grains of an emulsion to metallic silver, thus making the image
visible. (2) In xero radiography a dry powder used to make the
electrostatic image visible. (3) In penetrant inspection, a material used
to draw the penetrant back to the surface, thus revealing locations of
cracks or fissures.
DEVIZES SAND – Coarse greenish yellow moulding sand, suitable for dry
sand work in the foundry for medium and heavy castings, but not for
fine work, owing to its large grain size.
DIAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES – Actually set up fields that oppose

applied fields.
DIAMOND – Allotropic form (crystalline form) of carbon (the hardest
known mineral) which when very strongly heated, changes to graphite.
Used as a cutting tool, and a grinding tool and to dress grinding wheels.
DROSS – The scum that forms on the surface of molten metals largely
because of oxidation but sometimes because of the rising of impurities
to the surface.
DRY SAND MIXTURE (Mould) – Specially prepared and for making the
moulds that are to be dried before using. This demands a sand that
when dried or baked will give strength, porosity and permeability.
DUCTILE IRON – A high strength type of cast iron that will bend without
fracturing.
DURALUMIN – Aluminium alloy containing copper, manganese and
magnesium, which can be cast, forged or stamped, and is widely used
for sheets, tubes, forgings, rivets, nuts, bolts and similar parts.
DYE PENETRANT – Penetrant with a dye added to make it more readily
visible under normal lighting conditions.
ELASTOMER – Any of various elastic substances resembling rubber.
ELECTRIC STEEL – Special alloy steel, tool steel, and steel for castings,
melted in electric furnaces that permit very close control and the addition
of alloying elements directly into the furnaces.
ELECTRICAL INSULATING MATERIALS – The materials which offer
a very large resistance to flow of current, and for that reason they are
used to keep the current in its proper path along the conductor.
ELECTRICAL SHEETS – It is the trade name for iron and steel sheets used
in the manufacture of punchings for laminated magnetic circuits and
usually refers to silicon steel sheets.
ELECTROLYTE – A non-metallic conductor, usually a fluid, in which
electric current is carried by the movement of ions.
ELECTROMAGNET – A magnet of variable strength produced by passing
current through conductors around a soft iron core.
ELEKTRON – Magnesium base alloy supplied in the form of tubes, sheets,
extruded sections, forgings and castings.
Materials 21
ELEMENT – A substance which cannot be chemically broken down to

simpler substances.
EMERY – An abrasive material which, like corundum or aluminium oxide
type, is a natural abrasive.
EMULSIFIER – (1) A material that increases the stability of dispersion of
one liquid in another. (2) In penetrant inspection, a material that is
added to some penetrants after the penetrant is applied to make a water
washable mixture.
ENAMEL – Type of paint that dries to a smooth, glossy finish.
ERITH SAND – Yellow, close grained, refractory moulding sand, having
good strength and reasonable permeability.
EUTECTIC – Mixture (an alloy) in which the proportions of the constituents
are such that the mixture has a lower melting point than any of the
constituents.
FACING SAND – Sand that forms the face of the mould which comes in
contact with the molten metal.
FALKIRK SAND – Moulding sand with a coarse, open texture. It has very
good permeability and moderate binding qualities.
FERRIC OXlDE – Red iron oxide, commonly available as haematite ore.
Used in ground form in cores and moulds to increase hot compressive
strength.
FERRITE – A solid solution of one or more elements in body centered
cubic iron. Iron which contains little or no carbon. It is very soft and
ductile and is known as alpha iron. A magnetic form of iron.
FERROALLOYS – Alloys containing of certain elements combined with
iron, and used to increase the amount of such elements in ferrous metals
and alloys. In some cases the ferroalloys may serve as deoxidizers.
FERROALUMINIUM – An alloy of iron and aluminium containing about
20% iron and 80% aluminium.
FERROCHROMIUM – An alloy of iron and chromium available in several
grades containing from 60-72% chromium and from 0.06-7% carbon.
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL – A material that in general exhibits the
phenomena of hysteresis and saturation, and whose permeability is
dependant on the magnetizing force.
FERROMANGANESE – An alloy of iron and manganese containing from

78-82% manganese.
FERROMOLYBDENUM – An alloy of iron and molybdenum containing
58-64% molybdenum.
FERROPHOSPHOROUS – An alloy of iron and phosphorous containing
70% iron and 25% phosphorous.
FERROSILICON – An alloy of iron and silicon available in several grades
containing different percentages of silicon from 14-20% silicon,
42-52% silicon, 69.5-82% silicon, 82-88% silicon and 88-95%
silicon.
FERROUS – From the latin word FERRUM meaning iron, describes an
alloy containing a significant amount of iron.
FERROUS METALS – All metals that are alloys of iron, carbon, and other
materials.
FIBRE GLASS – A resin matrix reinforced with glass fibres for strength. A
reinforced plastic manufacturing material with many applications.
FILTER – In radiography a device, usually, a thin metallic layer inserted into
a beam of radiation so as to modify the transmitted spectrum of
radiation. It may be used to enhance or reduce contrast or minimize
undesirable scattered radiation.
FIRE BRICK – Brick made of refractory clay or other material which resists
high temperatures.
FIRE CLAY – A type of clay which is resistant to high temperatures.
FIXER (hypo) – A photographic processing solution, the principle function
of which is to dissolve the undeveloped silver halide grains from the
developed film, thus making the image more prominent. It often serves
also to harden the gelatine and halt the developing process.
FLUX – A solid, liquid or gaseous material that is applied to solid or molten
metal in order to clean and remove oxides.
FOAM RUBBER – It is also called sponge. Foam rubbers are formed by the
inclusion of chemicals in rubber compounding which form gases during
vulcanization.
FREE CARBON – The part of the total carbon in steel or cast iron that is
present in the elemental form as graphite or temper carbon.
Materials 23
FREE FERRITE – Ferrite that is structurally separate and distinct as may be

formed without the simultaneous formation of carbide when cooling
hypoeutectoid austenite into the critical temperature range.
GAMMA IRON – The face centered cubic form of pure iron, stable from
910-1230°C.
GANGUE – The worthless portion of an ore that is separated from the
desired part before smelting is commenced.
GEL COAT – A thin coat of plastic resin covering fibreglass panels.
GILDING METAL – Alloy containing 80-90% copper, the reminder being
zinc. Often used in wire form for jewellery and decorative applications.
GLACIER METAL – Tin base alloy used for lining bearings.
GLASS – Transparent substance produced by the fusion of sand and certain
metallic salts, of which soda compounds are most common.
GLUE LAMINATED BEAM – A structural wood beam made by gluing
thinner boards together until a desired dimension for beam thickness is
reached. Glue laminated beam will support large loads and can span
long distances with only end support.
GRAIN – Individual crystal in metals.
GRANITE – A rock composed of quartz, feldspar and mica from which
dimensionally stable surface plates and angle plates are made.
GRANULAR PEARLITE – A structure formed from ordinary lamellar
pearlite by long annealing at a temperature below but near to the critical
point, causing the cementite to spherodize in a ferritic matrix.
GRAPHITE – Native carbon in hexagonal crystals, also foliated or granular
massive, of black colour with metallic lusture, and soft.
GRAPHITE FIBRE – Strands of carbon in graphite form used in composite
materials as the main load bearing constituent.
GRAPHITIZER – Any substance, such as silicon, titanium, aluminium etc.
which promotes the formation of graphite in cast iron compositions.
GRAY CAST IRON – A cast iron that gives a gray fracture due to the presence
of flake graphite. Often called GRAY IRON.
GRIT SIZE – Nominal size of abrasive particles in a grinding wheel corresponding
to the number of openings per linear inch in a screen through which the
particles can just pass. Sometimes called GRAIN SIZE.
GUN METAL – Bronze alloy containing 88-89% copper, 5-10% tin and
2-6% zinc, lead up to 20% may also be added, although the quantity
seldom exceeds 5%.
HALF LIFE – The characteristic time required for half of the nuclei of a
radioactive species to disintegrate spontaneously.
HALF VALUE LAYER – In radiation, the thickness of absorber that will
reduce the intensity of radiation to one half. It is useful in estimating
radiographic exposure.
HIGH CARBON STEEL – Steel that has more than 0.6% carbon.
HIGH SPEED STEEL – Alloy steel (alloying elements being tungsten,
chromium, vanadium, cobalt and molybdenum) which retains its
strength and hardness at red heat, and is thus suitable for cutting tools
which reach high temperatures in use.
HINDU MINIUM – A high strength aluminium alloy containing, in addition
to aluminium, magnesium, iron, titanium, copper, nickel and silicon,
which after heat treatment has a strength exceeding that of mild steel.
HOT ROLLED STEEL – Steel rolled to shape while being heated to the
plastic condition.
HOYT METAL – Commercial grade of white metal used for bearing purpose.
HYPER EUTECTIC ALLOY – Any binary alloy whose composition lies to
the right of the EUTECTIC on an equilibrium diagram and which
contains some eutectic structure.
HYPO EUTECTIC ALLOY – Any binary alloy whose composition lies to
the left of the EUTECTIC on an equilibrium diagram and which
contains some eutectic structure.
IMPURITIES – Elements or compounds whose presence in a material is
undesired.
INCONEL – Nickel alloy highly resistant to heat and corrosion, with good
mechanical properties, consisting of 80% nickel, 12-14% chromium,
the balance being iron.
INERT GAS – A gas that may be used as a shield in welding or heat treatment
to prevent oxidation or scaling.
INGOT – A large block of metal that is usually cast in a metal mould and
forms the basic material for further rolling and processing.
Materials 25
INGOT IRON – Commercially pure open hearth iron.

INSULATING MATERIALS (electrical) – Materials which offer a very
large resistance to flow of current and for that reason they are used to
keep the current in its proper path along the conductor.
INOCULATED IRONS – Inoculated irons are high strength irons of such
composition that they would ordinarily be white as cast are often
inoculated in the ladle with a silicon compound to cause graphitization.
Typical agents used are ferosilicon, calcium silicide, Si-Mn-Zr, or
Ca-Mn-Si in crushed form.
INVAR – Nickel iron alloy (35-36% nickel, 0.5% carbon and 0.5%
manganese, the remainder being iron) having a very low coefficient of
thermal expansion at ordinary temperatures.
ION – An atom, or group of atoms, that has gained or lost one or more
outer electrons and thus carries an electric charge. Positive ions, or
cations, are deficient in outer electrons. Negative ions or anions, have
an excess of outer electrons, thus ion is electrostatically charged.
IRIDIUM 192 – A radio isotope with a half-life of 74 days and 12
dominant characteristic gamma radiation energies ranging from
0.14-0.65 MeV. It is suitable as a gamma radiation source, mostly
in radiography.
IRON – Silver white metallic element, symbol Fe, and melting point 1535°C.
Pure iron consists of homogenous crystal grains generally referred to as
ferrite.
IRON (wrought) – Malleable iron produced from molten pig iron by a
working or puddling process which removes the impurities.
KANTHAL – It is an electrical resistance alloy of iron-chromium-aluminium
with small additions of cobalt. About 25 per cent Cr, 5 per cent Al, 3
per cent Co, and balance almost pure iron.
KAOLIN – A fine white clay that is used in ceramics and refractories composed
mostly of kaolinite, a hydrous silicate of aluminium. Impurities may
cause various colours and tints.
KILLED STEEL – Steel that has been deoxidized with agents such as silicon
or aluminium to reduce the oxygen content to such a level that no
reaction occurs between carbon and oxygen during solidification. This
prevents gases from evolving during solidification.
LACQUER – A quick drying automotive paint.

LAMELLAR – An alternating plate like structure in metals (as in pearlite).
LAMINATE – (1) A composite metal, usually in the form of sheet or bar,
composed of two or more metal layers so bonded that the composite
metal forms a structural member. (2) To form a metallic product of
two or more bonded layers.
LAMINATIONS – Metal defects with separation or weakness generally
aligned parallel to the worked surface of the metal.
LASER – Light Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation. A device
in which heat is derived from the intense coherent beam of laser light
energy. This intense, narrow beam of light is used in some welding and
machining operations.
LEAD – Heavy, bluish grey, soft, ductile metal, which has a specific gravity
of 11.3 and a melting point of 327°C, extensively used alone, and as
the basis of many antifriction alloys.
LEAD SCREEN – In radiography, a screen is used (1) to filter out soft wave
or scattered radiation and (2) to reduce the intensity of the remaining
radiation so that the exposure time can be decreased.
LEDEBURITE – The eutectic of the iron carbon system, the constituents
being austenite and cementite. The austenite decomposes into ferrite
and cementite on cooling below the transformation temperature.
LIGNIN – A substance that is related to cellulose, that with cellulose forms
the woody cell walls of plants and the material that cements them
together. Methyl alcohol is derived from lignin in the destructive
distillation of wood.
LOAM – Clayey sand mixture having the consistency of slime, and used in
the making of moulds and cores for heavy castings.
LOW CARBON STEEL – Steel containing less than 0.3% carbon.
LUTE – Fine adhesive composition of substances such as clay, sharp sand,
plumbago and horsedung tempered with water. Used for sealing joints
in moulds and cores, for the purpose of making them air or metal
tight.
MAGNESIUM – A very light metal (about 106 Ibs/cuft) that alloys readily
with aluminium and other metals.
Materials 27
MAGNESIUM ALLOY – Alloy containing at least 85% of magnesium and

having a specific gravity of 1.8, alloying elements include aluminium,
manganese, zinc, and silicon. Widely used for aircraft components, their
weight is only two thirds that of aluminium, and a quarter of that of
steel.
MAGNETICALLY HARD ALLOY – A ferromagnetic alloy capable of being
magnetized permanently because of its ability to retain induced
magnetization and magnetic poles after the removal of externally applied
fields, an alloy with high coercive force.
MAGNETICALLY SOFT ALLOY – A ferromagnetic alloy that becomes
magnetized readily upon the application of a field and that return to
practically a non-magnetic condition when the field is removed, an
alloy with the properties of high magnetic permeability, low coercive
force, and low magnetic hysterisis loss.
MAGNOLIA METAL – White metal bearing alloy containing 4.75-6%
tin, 78-80% lead and 15-16% antimony.
MALLEABLE CAST IRON – A cast iron made by a prolonged anneal of
WHITE CAST IRON in which decarbonization or graphitization, or
both, takes place to eliminate some or all of the CEMENTITE. The
graphite is in the form of temper carbon. This is less brittle than gray
cast iron.
MANGANESE – A brittle, hard metallic element used as an alloy in steel to
give it toughness to withstand wear and strain.
MANGANESE BRONZE – A group of special alloys, not really bronzes at
all, containing about 1% manganese , 60% copper, 40% zinc and small
traces of iron, tin, lead or aluminium, the total percentage of these not
exceeding 5%.
MARTENSITE – An unstable constituent that is formed by heating and
quenching steel. It is formed without diffusion and only below a certain
temperature known as M’s temperature. Martensite is the hardest of
the transformation products of austenite, having an acicular or needle
like microstructure.
MATTER – Any substance which occupies space and has weight. The three
forms of matter are solids, liquids and gases.
MEDIUM CARBON STEEL – Steel with a carbon content of 0.3-0.6%.
METAL – An opaque lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good

conductor of heat and electricity and when polished , a good reflector
of light.
METALLOID – A non-metal that exhibits some, but not all, of the properties
of a metal. Examples are sulphur, silicon, carbon, phosphorous and arsenic.
METALLURGY – The science and study of the behaviours and properties
of metals and their extraction from their ores.
MILD STEEL – Carbon steel with a maximum of about 0.25% carbon.
MOLECULE – The smallest portion to which a substance may be reduced
by subdivision and still retain its chemical identity.
MOLYBDENUM – Element used in alloying steel, including high speed
steel. It gives red hardness and increases the strength of steel at high
temperatures. It increases the corrosion resistance of stainless steels at
high temperatures, increases the machinability of carbon steels and
reduces the temper brittleness of aluminium steels.
MONEL METAL – Trade name for a nickel copper alloy (67% nickel, 28%
copper, 5% iron, manganese, and silicon combined) which exhibits
high strength and toughness and corrosion resistance.
MU METAL – Special alloy of nickel and iron, also containing copper and
manganese, requiring only a very small magnetizing force to produce a
normal flux density i.e., the alloy is said to have high permeability (Greek
letter MU for permeability).
MUNTZ METAL – Alloy of brass family containing 60% copper and 40%
zinc used for manufacturing condenser tubes.
MUSIC WIRE – A high carbon steel wire of the highest quality used for
making mechanical springs.
MYCALEX – It is the trade name for a ceramic product made up of glass-
bonded mica flakes that possess a combination of properties found in
other insulating materials.
NATURAL RUBBER – Natural rubber is obtained in the form of a latex
from the sap of Hevea brasiliensis and a few other plants. Crude rubber
is coagulated by heat or by addition of electrolytes.
NAVAL BRASS – Alloy containing from 57.5-59.5% copper, 0.6-1.0% tin
and not more than 0.75% of impurities, the balance being zinc
Materials 29
(addition of tin improves the resistance of the alloy to corrosion by sea

water). Used for under-water fittings of marine craft.
NEOPRENE – A synthetic rubber, highly resistant to oil, light, heat and
oxidation.
NEUTRON – Elementary nuclear particle with a mass approximately the
same as that of hydrogen atom and electrically neutral.
NICHROME – Alloy of nickel and chromium which is practically non-
corrosive, can withstand high temperature without oxidation and is
used for furnace components.
NICKEL – A strong, grayish, white, ductile metal, which has high resistance
to oxidation and corrosion. Therefore, used in pure form for some
applications, such as plating. It is more usually alloyed with other metals.
NICKEL BRONZE – Bronze alloy of which there are two main series (1)
low nickel bronze (nickel below 5%) used, for bronze castings, and (2)
high nickel bronze (nickel over 10%) resistant to heat, and to corrosive
attack from chemical liquors.
NICKEL SILVER – Also called GERMAN SILVER. Alloy with composition
copper 60%, zinc 20%, and nickel 20%. Class of alloys used in the
manufacture of electrical resistance coils and elements, decorative articles
for which its lustrous colour (which increases in whiteness with nickel
content) make it very suitable, or for heavy duty works such as high
pressure steam fittings.
NICROSILAL – A nickel-chromium alloy cast iron having a composition
1.7% carbon, 4.5% silicon, 0.8% manganese, 18.0% nickel, and 2%
chromium, the balance is iron.
NIMONIC ALLOY – Nickel base alloy possessing high resistance to heat and
corrosion, used for components in gas turbines and jet propulsion engines.
NIRESIST IRON – Alloy cast iron (typical composition 14% nickel, 1.5%
silicon, 1 % manganese, and 3% carbon and remainder iron) which
possesses exceptional resistance to heat and corrosion.
NISPAN ALLOY – Range of alloys having controlled expansion and elastic
properties.
NITENSYL – Group of cast iron which have a tensile strength of 23-25
tons./sq.inch by suitable heat treatment. A typical composition is
1.5% nickel, 1.5% silicon, 2.9% carbon and 0.8% manganese, the
balance being iron.
NITRALLOYS – Nitralloys are the steels developed for nitriding process. The
commonly used grades contain 0.20 to 0.40 per cent carbon, 0.9 to 1.5 per
cent Cr, 0.80 to 1.20 per cent Al, and small additions of Mo, Si, and Mn.
NODULAR CAST IRON – A cast iron that has been treated while molten
with a master alloy containing an element such as magnesium or cerium
to give primary graphite in the spherulitic form.
NODULAR GRAPHITE – Graphite or carbon in the form of spheroids.
NOMAG – Non-magnetic cast iron, used for castings in electric motors
and alternators and similar applications. A typical composition is
11% nickel, 1.5% silicon, 3% total carbon, up to 7% manganese,
the balance being iron.
NON-FERROUS – Metals and alloys which do not contain any large
proportion of iron, examples being brass, copper, aluminium and lead.
NUCLEUS – (1) The first structurally stable particle capable of initiating
recrystallization of a phase or the growth of a new phase and possessing
an interface with the parent matrix. (2) The heavy central core of an
atom in which most of the mass and the total positive electric charge
are concentrated.
NYLON – A group of plastics of nitrogenous structure known as polyamides
which are crystalline in nature and can be so processed as to orient the
crystals axially thus making the tensile strength of fibres extremely high.
OIL STONE – An abrasive stone that is oiled and used to sharpen cutting
tools.
ORANGE PEEL – A pebble grained surface which develops in forming of
metals having coarse grains.
ORE – A natural mineral that may be mined and treated for the extraction of
any of its components, metallic or otherwise.
OSMIUM – Osmium is the heaviest of all metals (sp gr. 22. 48), which
melts at 4900°F and is harder than glass and quartz.
PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS – These materials are only feebly
magnetic.
PARTING SAND – Fine sand used for dusting on sand mould surfaces that
are to be separated.
Materials 31
PEARLITE – The laminar mixture of ferrite and cementite in slowly cooled

iron carbon alloys as found in steel and cast iron.
PEARLITIC MALLEABLE IRON – Irons made from the same or similar
chemical compositions as regular malleable iron, but so alloyed or heat
treated that some of the carbon in the resultant material is in the
combined form.
PERMANENT MAGNET – Special magnet steel that retains its magnetic
power indefinitely.
PETROCHEMICALS – Chemicals derived from petroleum substances or
materials manufactured from a component of crude oil or natural gas.
PEWTER – Alloy containing 1.8% lead, 89.4% tin, 7% antimony and
1.8% copper.
PHASE – It is a portion of matter which is homogeneous in the sence that
its smallest adjacent parts are indistinguishable from one another.
PHASE DIAGRAM – Phase diagram is also called equilibrium diagram or
constitution diagram, indicates the relative amount and composition
of phases present in an alloy at a given temperature and pressure, when
the alloy is in equilibrium.
PHOSPHOROUS – One of the elements, its chemical symbol is P. Its formula
weight is 123.92, specific gravity 1.82, and melting point 44.1°C.
PHOSPHOR BRONZE – Alloy containing 78.5-81.5% copper, 9-11 %
tin, 9-11 % lead, 0.05-0.25% phosphorous and 0.75% zinc, has
excellent antifriction properties. Used as bearing material.
PHOTON – The smallest possible quantity of an electromagnetic radiation
that can be characterized by a definite frequency.
PIG IRON – Iron produced from iron ore in the blast furnace, basic raw
material from which all cast iron, wrought iron and steel are made.
Usually contains about 4.5% carbon and impurities such as
phosphorous, silicon and sulphur.
PITCH – Usually coal tar pitch obtained in the manufacture of coke and
distilled off at about 175°C.
PLASMA – An ionized gas of extremely high temperature achieved by passing
an inert gas through an electric arc. Plasma arcs are used in welding,
cutting and machining processes.
PLASTIC – A certain group of natural and synthetic resins and their

compounds that can be moulded, cast, extruded or used for coatings
and films.
PLASTIC ELASTOMERS – Plastic elastomers are materials which exhibit
the characteristics of rubber, but are of a basic chemical structure that is
decidedly different from that of natural rubber.
PLATINUM – It is a silver-white heavy metal, unaffected by acids, air, or a
great variety of chemical agents. It is extensively used, either solid or
clad, for chemical equipment.
POLYESTERS – Polyesters are a reaction product of polyhydric alcohol and
a dibasic acid plus monomer styrene or diallyl phthalate. In combination
with glass fibres they form a product which has an outstanding strength-
weight ratio.
POLYETHYLENES – The product of straight chain polymerization of
ethylene and are obtainable as viscous liquids, gums, and tough flexible
solids suitable for moulding.
POLYMER – A chemical compound or mixture of compounds formed by
polymerization and consisting essentially of repeating structural units.
PORCELAIN – Porcelain is a ceramic product made up of clays, quartz, and
feldspar used as high voltage insulator.
POWDER METALLURGY – Forming parts out of powdered metal by
compacting the powder into a mould under great pressure and heating
it.
PRECIOUS METAL – One of the relatively scarce and valuable metals–
gold, silver and platinum group of metals.
PROTON – The positively charged particle in the nucleus of an atom.
PRUSSIAN BLUE – A blue pigment, obtainable in tubes which is used to
find hot spots in a bearing.
QUICK SILVER – Metallic mercury.
RADIO ACTIVE ELEMENT – An element which has at least one isotope
that undergoes spontaneous nuclear disintegration to emit positive alpha
particles, negative beta particles or gamma rays.
RADIO ISOTOPE – An isotope that emits ionizing radiation during its
spontaneous decay.
Materials 33
RADIUM – A radio active element. It is found in nature as radium 226,

which has a half-life of 1620 years.
RAZOR STEEL – Steel containing 1.15-1.25% carbon. This steel is forged
at 816°C, and hardened at 750-775°C. It is tempered at 230°C to
straw colour.
RED BRASS – A brass containing approximately 85% copper, 5% zinc, 5%
tin and 5% lead.
RED ROCK SAND – Open grain moulding sand obtained from red sand
stone rocks, with good permeability but low bonding qualities.
REFRACTORY – Materials that will resist change of shape, weight, or physical
properties at high temperatures say exceeding 1000oC. These materials
are usually silica, fire clay, diaspore, alumina and kaolin. They are used
for furnace linings.
RESIDUAL ELEMENTS – Elements present in an alloy in small quantities
but not added intentionally.
RESIDUE – The material that remains after completion of a chemical or
physical process, such as combustion, distillation, evaporation or filtration.
RESISTORS – Poor conductors.
ROUGHING STONE (hone) – A coarse honing stone.
RIMMED STEEL – A low carbon steel (insufficiently deoxized) that during
solidification releases considerable quantities of gases (mainly carbon
monoxide). When the mould top is not capped, a side and bottom rim
of several centimeters forms. The solidified ingot has got scattered blow
holes and porosity in the center but a relatively thick skin free from
blow holes.
RUST – A corrosion product containing hydrated oxide of iron. Applied
only to ferrous alloys.
SAND (moulding) – Substance used in foundries for making the moulds.
SCRAP – Materials or metals that have lost their usefulness and are collected
for reprocessing.
SEALANT – A sealing agent that has some adhesive qualities, it is used to
prevent leakage.
SEMICONDUCTORS – A few substances containing metallic elements,
have considerably less electrical conductivity. These contain a few
electrons to give them conductivity intermediate between metals and
insulators.
SEMISTEEL – Cast iron to which a small proportion of mild steel or

wrought iron scrap is added during the melting of the pig iron so that
the product will have a lower carbon content than the average iron,
from 2.5-3.2% and which is tougher.
SILICA – Silicon dioxide, SiO2 occurring in nature as quartz, opal etc.
SILICON – Non-metallic element which can be added to steel, cast iron
and non-ferrous alloys. It acts as a DEOXIDIZER, and also tends to
form graphite by throwing the carbon out of solution and thereby
increases the impact resistance of the steel, and, up to a silicon content
of 1.75%, the elastic limit is increased also.
SILICON ALUMINIUM – An alloy of 50% silicon, and 50% aluminium
used for making silicon additions to aluminium alloys.
SILICON BRASS – A series of alloys containing 0.5-0.6% silicon, 1-19%
zinc and a substantial amount of copper.
SILICON BRONZE – Alloy containing about 90-95% of copper, to which
is added silicon and manganese, equivalent in strength to medium carbon
steel with resistance to corrosion and fatigue.
SILICON CARBIDE – A refractory and abrasive material made by sand,
coke, and saw dust in an electric arc furnance.
SILICON CARBIDE BRIQUETS – Silicon carbide in BRIQUET form
used as an inoculant and deoxidizer in cupola melted gray iron.
SILICON COPPER – An alloy of silicon and copper, used as a deoxidizer
and hardener in copper base alloys.
SILMANAL – It is the name given to a rather expensive alloy of silver,
manganese, and aluminium that has unusual magnetic properties for
special applications.
SILVER – A white, ductile metal that is an excellent conductor of heat and
electricity.
SILVERY IRON – A type of pig iron containing 8-14% silicon, 1.5% carbon
max, 0.06% sulphur max and 0.15% phosphorous max.
SLAG – The more or less completely fused and vitrified matter separated
during the reduction of a metal from its ore.
Materials 35
SLURRY – A watery mixture of insoluble material such as mud, lime or

plaster of paris.
SMOG – The irritating haze resulting from the sun’s effect on certain
pollutants in the air, notably those from automobile exhaust. Also a
mixture of fog and smoke.
SMOKE – Solid or liquid particles under 1 micron in diameter. Particles
suspended in air after incomplete combustion of materials containing
carbon. The matter in the exhaust emission which obscures the
transmission of light.
SODIUM SILICATE – Na2SiO3-Also called water gas.
SOLDERING ALLOY – Fusible alloy used to join together two metallic
surfaces with the aid of heat. Soft solder is an alloy of lead and tin, in
which the proportions of the two constituents may vary from almost
pure lead to almost pure tin.
SOLDERING FLUID – Liquid flux used when soldering.
SOLID SOLUTIONS – Solid solutions are alloys containing alloying
elements that are relatively soluble in the base metal in the solid state.
SOLUBLE OIL – Specially prepared oil whose water emulsion is used as a
cutting or grinding fluid.
SOLUTE – A substance that is dissolved in a solution and is present in
minor amounts.
SOLVENT – A substance that is capable of dissolving another substance and
is the major constituent in a solution.
SORBITE – Structure consisting of evenly distributed carbide of iron particles
in a mass of ferrite, formed when a fully hardened steel is tempered at
between 550 and 650°C.
SPELTER – Hard solder used during brazing containing 60% copper, 20%
tin and 20% zinc.
SPHEROIDITE – It is the structure in steel, in which cementite takes the
form of rounded particles, or spheroids, instead of plates.
STAINLESS STEEL – Steel which resists corrosion by the atmosphere and
the attack of acids and which does not scale when subjected to high
temperature. Alloy steels containing iron, atleast 11 % chromium, nickel,
molybdenum and 0.1-1 % carbon.
STEATITE – Steatite is the name given to a fired ceramic product which

contains 80 per cent or more talc bonded with ceramic fluxes to a non-
porous structure.
STEEL – An alloy of iron and less than 2% carbon plus some impurities and
small amounts of alloying elements is known as plain carbon steel. The
alloy steels contain substantial amounts of alloying elements such as
chromium or nickel besides carbon.
STELLITE – Non-ferrous alloy containing 35-80% cobalt, 10-40%
chromium, 0-25% tungsten and 0-10% molybdenum.
SYNTHETIC MATERIALS – A complex chemical compound which is
artificially formed by the combination of two or more compounds or
elements.
TERNARY ALLOY – An alloy that contains three principal elements.
THERMIT – Powdered form of finely divided iron oxide and aluminium
which burns intensely to produce superheated liquid steel at a
temperature of about 30.35°C, used for welding wrought iron and
steel forgings and castings.
THERMOPLASTICS – Materials which when heated begin to soften at
temperatures as low as 56.5°C, then can be moulded without any change
in chemical structure.
THERMOSETTING MATERIALS – Materials that undergo a chemical change
when moulded and cannot be resoftend by heating to reshape them.
TIN – A silvery white, soft metal used in solders and as a plating material.
TITANIUM – A strong, grayish metal that weighs less than steel.
TOOL STEEL – A special group of steels that is designed to specific uses,
such as heat resistant steels that can be heat treated to produce certain
properties mainly hardness and wear resistance.
TROOSTITE – Structure in steel (consisting of very finely divided iron
carbide in what is known as “alpha iron”) produced either by tempering
a martensitic steel at between 250° and 450°C or by quenching steel at
a speed sufficient to suppress the thermal change point fully.
TUNGSTEN – Hard, grayish, semiprecious metal with very high melting
point of 3300°C, used for electrical contacts, filaments in electric lamps
etc. Used as an alloying element in high speed steel.
Materials 37
TUNGSTEN CARBIDE – An iron gray powder composed of carbon and

tungsten and used in sintered form as a cutting tool material.
TUNGUM BRONZE – Trade name for high strength bronze.
TWIN CRYSTAL – A crystal grain in which the crystal lattices of two parts
are related to each other in orientation as mirror images across the interface
known as the twinning plane.
VANADIUM – A rare metal used as an alloying element in steel to improve
shock resistance and forgeability.
VULCANATES – Vulcanates are materials which reduce plasticity of the
rubber compound, while maintaining its elasticity.
WHITE IRON – An extremely hard cast iron that results from pouring the
hot metal into a mould with a chill plate in it.
WROUGHT IRON – Contains 1-2% slag, which is distributed through
the iron as threads and fibres imparting a tough fibrous structure. Usually
contains less than 0.1 % carbon. It is tough, malleable, and relatively
soft.
WROUGHT METALS – These are metals furnished in the shapes resulting
from the operations such as rolling, forging, drawing and extrusion.
YELLOW BRASS – An alloy of about 70% copper and 30% zinc.
ZINC – Bluish, grey metal with a melting point of 418°C, it becomes brittle
at 200°C and can be powdered at this temperature.
ZIRCON – Natural zirconium silicate, containing when pure 67.3%
zirconium oxide, and 32.7% silica, and is used as a moulding medium.
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CHAPTER
3
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
ACICULAR STRUCTURE – A microstructure characterized by needle

shaped constituents.
ALLOTROPY – Ability of a material to exist in several crystalline forms.
AMORPHOUS – Non-crystalline, a random orientation of the atomic
structure.
ANISTROPY – A material that has specific physical properties in different
directions. Rolled steel is strongest in the direction of rolling.
API GRAVITY – Gravity expressed in units of standard American Petroleum
Institute (hydrometer).
AUSTENITE – A solid solution of cementite or iron carbide, Fe3C in iron.
BANDED STRUCTURE – A segregated structure of nearly parallel bands
aligned in the direction of working.
BEL – A unit denoting the ratio of power levels of signals or sound. The number
of bels may be given as the common logarithm of the ratio of powers.
BETA RAY – A ray of electrons emitted during the spontaneous disintegration
of certain atomic nuclei.
BOILING POINT – The temperature at which a liquid begins to boil.
BOUND ELECTRONS – The inner orbit of electrons around the nucleus
of the atom.
BREAKING POINT – The final rupture of a material which is being pulled
in tension, after it has reached its ultimate strength.
BRINELL HARDNESS – The hardness of metal or alloy measured by
pressing a hard ball (usually 10 mm diameter) with a standard load into
the specimen. A number is derived by measuring the indentation with

a special microscope.
BRITTLE METAL – A metal which exhibits only a very small change in
dimensions before it fractures.
BRITTLENESS – The property of materials to not deform under load, but
to break suddenly, for example, cast iron and glass are brittle. Brittleness
is opposite to plasticity.
BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY – Ratio of a uniform, triaxial (equal
in all directions) tensile or compressive stress to the change in volume
it produces.
CAVITATION – The formation and instantaneous collapse of innumerable
tiny voids or cavities within a liquid subjected to rapid and intense
pressure changes.
CEMENTATION – Process of introducing elements into the outer layer of
metal objects by means of high temperature diffusion.
CEMENTITE – Iron carbide, Fe3C, a hard brittle, crystalline compound
observed in the microstructure of iron base alloys.
CHAFING FATIGUE – Fatigue initiated in a surface damaged by rubbing
against another body.
CHLORINATION – A refining or degasification process, wherein dry
chlorine gas is passed through molten aluminium base and magnesium
base alloys to remove entrapped oxides and dissolved gases.
CLEAVAGE – Splitting (fracture) of a crystal in a crystallographic plane of
low index.
CLEAVAGE FRACTURE – A fracture, usually of a polycrystalline metal, in
which most of the grains have failed by cleavage, resulting in bright
reflecting facets. It is one type of crystalline fracture.
CLEAVAGE PLANE – A characteristic crystallographic plane or set of planes
on which cleavage fracture easily occurs.
COALESCENCE – The union of particles of a dispersed phase into larger
units, usually effected at temperatures below fusion point.
COHESIVE STRENGTH – (1) The hypothetical stress in an unnotched
bar causing tensile fracture without plastic deformation. (2) The stress
corresponding to the forces between atoms.
Material Properties 41
COLD SHORT – A condition of brittleness existing in some metals at

temperatures below the recrystallization temperature.
COLD SHUT – (1) A discontinuity that appears on the surface of cast
metal as a result of two streams of liquid meeting and failing to unite.
(2) A portion of the surface of a forging that is separated, in part, from
the main body of metal by oxide.
COLUMNAR STRUCTURE – A coarse structure of parallel columns of
grains having the long axis perpendicular to the casting surface.
COMPLETE FUSION – Fusion which has occured over the entire base
metal surfaces exposed for welding.
COMPOUND – A combination of two or more elements that are mixed
together.
COMPRESSIBILITY – The property of a substance (e.g., air) by virtue of
which its density increases with increase in pressure.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (ultimate) – The maximum stress that can
be applied to a brittle material in compression without fracture.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (yield) – The maximum stress that can be
applied to a metal in compression without permanent deformation.
COMPRESSIVE STRESS – Compressive stress is compression load per
unit area perpendicular to the load.
CONDUCTIVITY – The quality or power of conducting or transmitting
heat, electricity etc.
CONGRUENT TRANSFORMATION – An isothermal or isobaric phase
change in which both of the phases concerned have the same
composition throughout the process.
COOLING STRESSES – Residual stresses resulting from nonuniform
distribution of temperature during cooling.
CORROSION – The destructive chemical or electro-chemical reaction of a
material and its environment, usually associated only with metals in
contact with liquids.
CORROSION EMBRITTLEMENT – The severe loss of ductility of a
metal resulting from corrosive attack, usually intergranular and often
not visually apparent.
CORROSION FATIGUE – Effect of the application of repeated or
fluctuating stresses in a corrosive environment characterized by shorter
life than would be encountred as a result of either the repeated or

fluctuating stresses alone or the corrosive environment alone.
COUPON – A piece of metal from which a test specimen is to be prepared,
often an extra piece as on a casting or forging.
COVALENT BOND – A bond between two or more atoms resulting from
the completion of shells by the sharing of electrons.
CRAZING – Minute surface cracks on the surface of materials often caused
by thermal shock.
CREEP – Slow plastic deformation in steel and most structural metals caused
by prolonged stress under the yield point at elevated temperatures.
CREEP LIMIT – (1) The maximum stress that will cause less than a specified
quantity of creep in a given time. (2) The maximum nominal stress
under which the creep strain rate decreases continuously with the time
under constant load and at constant temperature. Sometimes called
CREEP STRENGTH.
CRITICAL POINT – The temperature or pressure at which a change in
crystal structure, phase, or physical properties occur.
CRYSTALLIZATION – Act or process of forming crystals or bodies formed
by elements or compounds solidifying so that they are bounded by
plane surfaces.
CRYSTAL UNIT STRUCTURE OR UNIT CELL – The simplest
polyhedron that embodies all the structural characteristics of a crystal
and makes up the lattice of a crystal by indefinite repetition.
CURIE TEMPERATURE – The temperature of magnetic transformation
below which a metal or alloy is magnetic and above which it is
paramagnetic.
DAMAGING STRESS – The minimum stress which, if exceeded in the
material, would render the part unfit for service before the end of its
normal expected life.
DAMPING CAPACITY – The ability to absorb vibration. More accurately
defined as the amount of work dissipated into heat by a unit volume
of material during a completely reverse cycle of unit stress.
DENDRITE – A crystal formed during solidification of a metal or alloy
characterized by a structure like that of a fir tree.
DENSITY – The ratio of the mass of a body to its volume.

DUCTILE or MALLEABLE METAL – A metal that may be worked to a
different size or shape without breaking or shattering.
DUCTILITY – The property of a material to deform permanently or to
exhibit plasticity, elongation or bending or twisting without rupture
(breaking or cracking) while under tension.
DYNAMIC CREEP – Creep that occurs under the conditions of fluctuating
load or fluctuating temperature.
ELASTIC DEFORMATION – The movement or deflection of a material
when an external load is applied that is less than the elastic limit.
ELASTICITY – The ability of a material to return to its original form after
the load has been removed.
ELASTIC LIMIT – Maximum stress that can be applied to a metal without
causing plastic deformation that will remain after the load is relaxed to zero.
ELASTIC RATIO – It is the ratio of yield point stress to tensile strength of
a metal.
ELECTROLYSIS – Chemical change resulting from the passage of an electric
current through an electrolyte.
ELONGATION – Elongation is the strain produced by uniaxial tension.
EMBRITTLEMENT – Reduction in the normal ductility of a metal due
to a physical or chemical change.
ENDURANCE LIMIT – The limiting stress below which the metal will
withstand without fracture an infinitely large number of cycles of stress.
ENDURANCE RATIO – It is the ratio between the endurance limit to
tensile strength.
EUTECTIC – The alloy which has the lowest melting point possible for a
given composition.
EUTECTOID – A solid solution of any series which cools without change
to its temperature of final composition.
FACTOR OF SAFETY – The ratio of the damaging stress to working stress.
FATIGUE IN METALS – The tendency in a metal to fail, breaking or
cracking under conditions of repeated cyclical stressing that take place
well below the ultimate tensile strength.
FATIGUE STRENGTH – The amount of stress that can be applied to a

metal without failure while it is subjected to ten million or more cycles
of load reversals. In mild steel, the fatigue strength is about 50 per cent
of the tensile strength.
FERRITE – Iron practically carbon free. It forms a body centered cube lattice
and may hold in solution considerable amounts of silicon, nickel or
phosphorous.
FLUIDITY – Ability of molten metal to flow readily, usually measured by
the length of a standard spiral casting.
FRACTURE STRESS – The maximum principal true stress at fracture.
Usually refers to unnotched tensile specimens.
FREE ELECTRONS – Electrons which are in the outer orbit of the atoms
nucleus.
GRAIN BOUNDARY – The outer perimeter of a single grain where it is in
contact with adjacent grains.
GRAIN GROWTH OR RECRYSTALLIZATION – Metal grains begin to
reform to larger and more regular size and shape at certain temperatures,
depending to some extent on the amount of prior cold working.
GRAIN REFINER – A material added to a molten metal to attain finer
grains in the final structure.
GRAIN SIZE – For metals, a measure of the area or volume of grains in
polycrystalline material, usually expressed as an average when the
individual sizes are fairly uniform. Reported in terms of number of
grains per unit area or volume, average diameter, or as a grain size
number derived from area measurements.
GRANULAR PEARLITE – A structure formed from ordinary lamellar
pearlite by long annealing at a temperature below but near to the
critical point, causing the cementite to spheroidize in a ferrite matrix.
GROWTH – With reference to cast iron, permanent increase in volume that
results from continued or repeated cyclic heating and cooling at elevated
temperatures.
HALF-LIFE – The characteristic time required for half of the nuclei of a
radioactive species to disintegrate spontaneously.
HARDENABILITY – The property that determines the depth and distribution
of hardness in a ferrous alloy induced by heating and quenching.
HARDNESS – The property of metal to resist being permanently deformed.

This is divided into three categories, resistance to penetration, resistance
to abrasion and elastic hardness.
HOT SHORT – Brittleness in hot metal. The presence of excess amounts of
sulphur in steel causes hot shortness.
HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT – A condition of low ductility in metals
resulting from the absorption of hydrogen.
IMPACT TEST – A test in which small notched specimens are broken in
Izod-Charpy machine. This test determines the notch toughness of a
metal.
INCLUSIONS – Impurities, usually oxides, sulphides, silicates and similar
compounds, retained from the ore or from processing.
INFRARED RADIATION – Electromagnetic energy with wave lengths
from 770 to 1200 nanometers.
ISOTROPY – Quality of having identical properties in all directions.
KISH – Graphite thrown out by liquid cast iron in cooling.
KNOOP HARDNESS – Microhardness determined from the resistance of
metal to indentation by a pyramidal diamond indenter, having edge
angles of 172° and 32 minutes and 130°, making a rhombohedral
impression with one long and one short diagonal.
LATTICE, SPACE – The term that is used to denote a regular array of points in
space. For example, the sites of atoms in a crystal. The points of the three
dimensional space lattice are constructed by the repeated application of
the basic translations that carry a unit cell into its neighbour.
LIQUIDUS – The temperature at which freezing begins during cooling and
ends during heating under equilibrium conditions, represented by a
line on a two phase diagram.
MACHINABILITY – The relative ease of machining that is related to the
hardness of the material to be cut.
MACROSTRUCTURE – The structure of metals as revealed by examination
of the etched surface of a polished specimen at a magnification not
exceeding ten diameters.
MALLEABILITY – In metals, the property of being able to undergo
mechanical deformation (flattened by rolling or hammering) without
rupturing or developing a marked increase in resistance to change of

shape.
MELTING POINT – The temperature at which a pure metal, compound
or eutectic changes from solid to liquid, the temperature at which the
liquid and the solid are in equilibrium.
MICROPOROSITY – Porosity visible only with the aid of microscope.
MICROSTRUCTURE – The structure of polished or etched metal
specimens as seen enlarged through a microscope.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY – A measure of the rigidity of metal. Ratio
of stress, within proportional limit, to corresponding strain. Also called
ELASTIC MODULUS and COEFFICIENT OF ELASTICITY and
YOUNGS MODULUS.
MODULUS OF RIGIDITY – Ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain,
within the proportional limit.
MODULUS OF RUPTURE – A fictitious stress calculated for either bending
or torsion tests on the basis of the load causing failure, and the assumption
that the elastic equation for stress applies up to the point of failure.
Ms TEMPERATURE – The temperature at which martensite begins to
form in an alloy system on cooling.
MOTTLED – White iron structure interpersed with spots or flecks of gray.
NOTCH BRITTLENESS – Susceptibility of a material to brittle fracture at
points of stress concentration.
NOTCH DUCTILITY – The percentage reduction in area after complete
separation of the metal in a notch tensile test.
NOTCH RUPTURE STRENGTH – The ratio of applied load to original
area of the minimum cross-section in a stress rupture test of a notched
specimen.
NOTCH SENSITIVITY – A measure of the reduction in strength of a
metal caused by the presence of stress concentration.
NOTCH TOUGHNESS – The resistance to fracture of a metal specimen
having a notch or groove when subjected to a sudden load, usually
tested on an Izod-Charpy testing machine.
OILINESS – The capacity of the lubricant to stick on to the surface under
conditions of heavy load.
OXIDATION – The slow or rapid reaction of oxygen with other elements,

burning. In metals, over oxidation during heating under oxidizing
conditions often results in permanent damage to metals.
OXIDATION REDUCTION – A chemical reaction in which one or more
electrons are transferred from one atom or molecule to another.
PEARLITE – A micro constituent of iron and steel consisting of alternative
layers of ferrite and iron carbide or cementite.
PEEL LOAD – In metal, plastics or composites, the force that acts to peel
apart joined pieces.
PH – The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity. It denotes the
degree of acidity or basicity of a solution.
PERMEABILITY – In casting of metals, the term is used to define the
porosity of foundry sands in moulds and the ability of trapped gases
to escape through the sand.
PERMANENT SET – When a metal remains deformed from its original
dimensions after the forces applied to it have been reduced to zero, it
is said to have undergone plastic deformation, and the amount of
deformation is called the permanent set.
PHASE – A portion of an alloy, physically homogeneous throughout, that is
separated from the rest of the alloy by distinct BOUNDARY surfaces.
The following phases occur in the iron carbon alloy, molten alloy;
austenite, ferrite, cementite, and graphite.
PHYSICAL CHANGE – A change which does not alter the composition of
the molecules of a substance.
PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT – The reversible interaction, exhibited by some
crystalline materials between an elastic strain and an electric field.
The direction of the strain is dependant upon the polarity of the field.
PLASTICITY – The quality of material such that it can be deformed without
breaking. Clay is completely a plastic material. Metals exhibit plasticity
in varying amounts.
PLASTIC DEFORMATION – Deformation that does or will remain
permanent after the removal of load which caused it.
POISSON’S RATIO – When a rod of elastic material is elongated by stretching
(strain), the lateral (crosswise) dimensions will contract. Poisson’s ratio
is the ratio between the strain and the amount of lateral contraction.
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT – Proportional limit is the value of stress at

which the stress strain curve first bends to the right. The proportional
limit is high for steels and low for cast iron, copper, and aluminium.
PROOF LOAD – A predetermined load, generally some multiple of the
service load, to which a specimen or structure is submitted before
acceptance for use.
PROOF, RESILIENCE – Maximum amount of elastic energy that may be
stored without permanent deformation in the material during its first
loading cycle.
RADIOACTIVITY – The spontaneous nuclear disintegration with emission
of corpuscular or electromagnetic radiation.
RESIDUAL STRESS – Stress induced within the structure of a material by
cold working, machining, and heat treatments.
RESILIENCE – Ability of a material to store elastic energy without
permanent deformation.
RETENTIVITY – The capacity of a material to retain a portion of the
magnetic field set up in it after the magnetizing force is removed.
ROCKWELL HARDNESS – Hardness test that uses a penetrator and known
weights. Several scales are used to cover very soft to very hard materials.
The Rockwell C scale is used mostly for steel.
SACRIFICIAL ANODE – A metal slug, usually magnesium and zinc,
designed to concentrate galvanic corrosion upon itself and thus save a
more important structure on which the anode is attached, such as a
ship’s hull or a burried pipe line.
SCRATCH HARDNESS – The hardness of a metal determined by the width
of a scratch made by a cutting point drawn across the surface under a
given pressure.
SEGREGATION – Non-uniform distribution of alloying elements,
impurities or microphases.
SHEARING – A concentration of forces in which the bending moment is
virtually zero and the metal tends to tear or to be cut along a transversal
axis at the point of applied pressure.
SHEAR LOAD – A load that tends to force materials apart by application of
side slip action.
SHEAR STRESS – Shear stress is the shear load per unit area, exerted between
the material on one side of an imaginary plane of separation in the part
and the material on the other side.
SHORTNESS – A form of brittleness in metal. It is designated as cold, hot
and red to indicate the temperature range in which the brittleness
occurs.
SKELP – A name of the semifinished steel of which butt-welded pipe is
made.
SLAG (dross) – A fused product that occurs in the melting of metals and is
composed of oxidized impurities of a metal and a fluxing substance
such as limestone. The slag protects the metal from oxidation by the
atmosphere since it floats on the surface of the molten metal.
SLIP PLANES – Also called slip bands. These are lines that appear on the
polished surface of a plastically deformed metal. The slip bands are the
result of crystal displacement, defining planes in which shear has taken
place.
SOLID SOLUTION – Found in metals at temperatures below the solidus.
Some of the types of solid solutions are continuous, intermediate,
interstitial, substitutional and terminal.
SOLIDUS – Seen as a line in a two phase diagram, it represents the
temperatures at which freezing ends when cooling, or melting begins
when heating under equilibrium conditions.
SOLUBILITY – The degree to which one substance will dissolve in another.
SPALLING – Breaking small pieces from a surface, often caused by thermal shock.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY – A numerical value that represents the weight of a
given substance with the weight of an equal volume of water. The
specific gravity for pure water is taken as 1.000.
SPHEROIDIZING – Consists of holding carbon steel for a period of time
at just under the transformation temperature (heating and cooling).
An aggregate of globular carbide is formed from other microstructures
such as pearlite.
SPRING BACK – The tendency of a formed metal part to return to some
extent to its former shape because of the elasticity of the metal.
SPUTTERING – To dislodge atoms from the surface of a material by collision
with high energy particles for the purpose of depositing a metallic film
on a part.
STIFFNESS – The ability of a metal or shape to resist elastic deformation.

For identical shapes, the stiffness is proportional to the modulus of
elasticity.
STRAIN – The measure of the change in the size or shape of a body, referred
to its original size or shape. This is unit deformation of a metal when
stress is applied.
STRENGTH – The ability of a material to resist external forces. It is called
tensile, compressive, or shear strength depending on the load.
STRESS – The load per unit area on a stress strain diagram.
STRESS, TENSILE – Refers to an object loaded in tension, denoting the
longitudinal force that causes the fibres of a material to elongate.
STRESS, COMPRESSIVE – Refers to a member loaded in compression,
which either gives rise to a given reduction in volume or a transverse
displacement of the material.
STRESS, SHEAR – Refers to a force that lies in a parallel plane. The force tends
to cause the plane of the area involved to slide on the adjacent planes.
STRESS, TORSION – The shearing stress that occurs at any point in a
body as the result of an applied torque or torsional load.
STRESS RAISER – Can be a notch, nick, weld under cut, sharp change in
section, or machining grooves or hairline cracks that provide a
concentration of stresses when the metal is under tensile stress. Stress
raisers pose a particular problem and can cause early failure in members
that are subjected to many cycles of stress reversals.
STRESS RELIEF ANNEAL – The reduction of residual stress in a metal
part by heating it to a given temperature and holding it there for a
suitable length of time. This treatment is used to relieve stresses caused
by welding, cold working, machinning, casting and quenching.
SUPER-CONDUCTIVITY – Property of zero electrical resistance (and zero
magnetic induction) acquired by some metals at very low temperatures.
SURFACE TENSION – Interfacial tension between two phases one of which
is a gas.
TARNISHING – A chemical reaction of a metal with its environment which
results in formation of films which coat the metal.
TEMPER – (1) In ferrous metals, the stress relief of steels that are hardened
by quenching for the purpose of toughening them and reducing their
BRITTLENESS. (2) In non-ferrous metals, temper is a condition

produced by mechanical treatment such as cold working. An alloy may
be cold worked to the hard temper, fully softened to the anealed temper,
or two intermediate tempers.
TENSION LOAD – A load applied to joined parts that attempts to separate
them by a pulling or stretching action.
TENSILE STRESS – Tensile stress is the tension load per unit area
perpendicular to the load.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY – The quantity of heat that is transmitted
per unit time, per unit cross-section, per unit temperature gradient
through a given substance. All materials are in some measure conductors
of heat.
THERMAL EXPANSION – The increase of the dimension of a material
that results from the increased movement of atoms caused by increased
temperature.
THERMAL SHOCK – A stress induced on the surface of a material such as
carbide tools or fire brick caused by a rapid rate of heating and surface
expansion.
THERMAL STRESS – Shear stress that is induced in a material due to
unequal heating or cooling rates. The difference of expansion and
contraction between the interior and exterior surfaces of a metal that is
being heated or cooled is an example.
THERMOPLASTIC – Material capable of softening or fusing when heated
and of hardening again when cooled.
THERMOSETTING – Material capable of becoming permanently rigid
when cured by heating, will not soften by reheating.
TOUGHNESS – Ability of a metal to absorb energy and deform plastically
before fracturing. Work per unit volume required to fracture a metal
and is equal to the area under the stress strain curve.
TOXICITY – The degree of danger posed by a substance to animal or plant life.
TRANSFORMATION TEMPERATURE – The temperature at which one
phase transforms into another phase, for example, where ferrite or alpha
iron transforms into austenite or gamma iron.
TRANSITION TEMPERATURE – The temperature at which normally

ductile metals become brittle.
ULTIMATE STRENGTH – Maximum conventional stress, tensile,
compressive or shear that a material can withstand. The highest strength
that a metal exhibits after it begins to deform plastically under load.
Rupture of the material occurs either at the peak of its ultimate strength
or at a point of further elongation and at a drop in stress load.
VALENCY – The capacity of an atom to combine with other atoms to form
a molecule. The inert gases have zero valence, valence is determined by
considering the positive and negative atoms as determined by the atoms
gaining or losing of valence electrons.
VISCOSITY – The property of the fluids, either liquid or gaseous, which
causes them to resist instantaneous change of shape or instantaneous
rearrangement of their parts, due to internal friction.
VOID – A cavity or hole in a substance.
WEAR – A surface deterioration of contacting surfaces that destroys their
operating relationship, or causes rupture if carried far enough.
WELDMENT – A unit formed by welding together an assembly of pieces.
WORKING STRESS – The actual stress that the part will be designed to
handle.
YIELD POINT – The stress at which a marked increase in deformation
occurs without an increase in load stress as seen in mild steel or medium
carbon steel. This phenomenon is not seen in non-ferrous metals and
other alloy steels.
CHAPTER
4
PROCESSES
AGING OF A PERMANENT MAGNET – It is the process of normal or

accelerated change, under continued normal or specified artificial
conditions, in the strength of the magnetic field maintained.
ARC WELDING – Method of welding or uniting two metallic pieces in
which the metal is melted by the heat of an electric arc.
ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING – Welding of metallic pieces in which
heat is liberated by hydrogen atoms when combining into molecules,
is used to fuse the metal.
AUTOMATIC ARC WELDING – Method of arc welding in which the arc
moves along the joint to be welded, feeds the electrodes to the arc, and
governs the arc length, by automatic means.
BEADING – Process of forming a bead or lapped edge on a sheet metal
article.
BENDING (by forging) – In bending there is a thinning of the material,
accompanied by a spreading of the metal on the inside of the bend
and a narrowing at the outside.
BLANKING – Cutting or shearing a shape (called blank) with a die from
sheet metal stock. The hole material is saved and used for further
operation.
BLAST CLEANING – Blast cleaning involves the forcing of a stream or
spray of sand or other abrasive material against the surface of metal,
stone, and other materials by means of compressed air.
BORING – Opening out or increasing the diameter of an existing drilled or
cored hole by means of a boring tool.
BRAZING – Joining two pieces of metal without melting either one by

using a brazing alloy (copper zinc alloy i.e., brass) that melts at a lower
temperature than the materials being joined.
BROACHING – Consecutive shearing of a hole or contour by a series of
stepped cutting edges similar to a saw used in low acting presses for
accurate sizing of holes or contours, such as gear teeth, and keyways.
BURNISHING – Bright, polished finish produced on the surface of a metal
by rubbing it with another metallic harder surface, which smooths out
small scratch marks.
BUTT-WELDING – Form of electrical resistance welding, the passage of
current between the ends of the sections to be joined causing a rise in
temperature sufficient to fuse the metal.
CALENDERING – A process that involves rolling of the product into sheets
to achieve the desired surface finishes and thickness.
CASTING – Process of producing a metal object by pouring molten metal
into a mould.
COINING (embossing) – Shaping a piece of a metal in a mould or die
often creating raised figures or numbers.
COLD DRAWING – Reducing the cross section of a metal bar or rod by
drawing it through a die, at a temperature below the recrystallization
range, usually room temperature.
COLD ROLLING – Reducing the cross-section of a metal bar in a rolling
mill below the recrystallization temperature, usually room temperature.
COLD SAWING – Any sawing process in which the chips are not heated to
the softened state.
COLD WORKING – Deforming a metal plastically at a temperature below
its lowest recrystallization temperature. Strain hardening occurs as a
result of this permanent deformation.
CONFINED FLOW – Confined flow is the basis of drop forging and hot
pressing. In this, the metal is ultimately confined in all directions, being
forced to behave as pasty fluid in filling every portion of the confining
cavity.
CENTERLESS GRINDING – Method of grinding metallic parts in which
the piece to be ground (circular piece) is supported on a work rest, and
passed between a grinding wheel running at a high speed and a controlling
wheel running at a slow speed.
Processes 55
CENTRIFUGING – Casting of molten metals by using centrifugal force

instead of gravity. The mould (or moulds) is rotated about a centre
where molten metal is poured and allowed to follow sprues outward
and get into the mould cavity.
CENTRIFUGAL CASTINGS – Castings of cylindrical design are made by
the introduction of molten metal into revolving permanent moulds,
known as centrifugal casting machines, where the centrifugal force is
employed to bring pressure in filling of the mould.
CLADDING – The joining of one metal (usually sheet or plate) to another
by using heat and pressure or by an explosive force. With this method,
a thin sheet of more expensive metal or one less likely to corrode may
be applied to a less expensive metal or one more likely to corrode.
CLIMB MILLING – Milling process in which the work is fed in the same
direction as the path of the teeth on the cutter, below the arbor.
COUNTER SINKING – It is the opening out of the ends of a hole to form a
conical hollow for receiving the head of a countersunk screw, rivet or bolt.
CRIMPING – Producing flutes or corrugations. Often used to gather metal
as for stovepipe joints.
CROWNING – Shaping of the rim of a belt pulley so that the diameter at
the centre of the face is greater than at the edges so as to keep the belt
on the crown of the pulley.
CUPPING – Process in which a flat blank is converted into a cup like form.
CUT OFF – An operation that shears a stamping from a strip or bar.
DEFORMATION – Alteration of the form or shape as a result of the plastic
behaviour of a metal under stress.
DIECASTING – Casting metal into a metallic mould by using pressure
instead of gravity or centrifugal force.
DIFFUSION – The process of atoms or other particles intermingling within
a solution. In solids, it is a slow movement of atoms from areas of
high concentration towards areas of low concentration. The process
may be (a) migration of interstitial atoms such as carbon, (b) movement
of vacancies or (c) direct exchange of atoms to neighbouring sites.
DINKING – Cutting of non-metallic articles from the sheet, usually involving
such operations as blanking and piercing.
DRAW FILING – Finishing operation in filing during which the file is

moved in the direction of the greater length of the work, being held
like a spokeshave.
DRAWING – Process, in press work, which involves reducing the diameter
or cross-sectional dimensions of a cup, shell, tube, bar or wire.
DRILLING – Power or hand operated method for the production of holes
in metal or other solid materials with a drill.
DROP FORGING – Drop forging is the operation in which a metal part is
formed by repeated hammer blows on a bar or billet placed between a
pair of dies containing the impression of the finished shape desired.
EDGING – Edging is a gathering operation. Here the metal is displaced to
the desired shape by striking it between two dies. As the dies strike, the
stock, metal is gathered toward the center of the cavity and some
sideways movement also takes place.
ELECTRON BEAM WELDING – The fusion of material by energy
imparted from an intense beam of electrons.
ELECTROPLATING – Coating an object with a thin layer of metal through
electrolytic deposition.
ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING – Uniting the parts by heating them
to welding temperatures and then forcing the ends together by
mechanical pressure.
EMBOSSING – Operation of raising a design or form above the surface of
a component by means of high pressure effected by pressing or
squeezing action.
ETCHING – Process of marking a metal by eating into it with an acid or
other chemical.
EXFOLIATION – Cracking of the outer skin of the metal.
EXTRUSION – Process in which metal (often heated) is caused to flow through
a restricted orifice by using an extremely high force, so creating an extremely
elongated strip of uniform, but comparatively small cross-section.
FELLOWS PROCESS – Method of generating involute gear teeth by the
use of pinion shaped cutter.
FETTLING – Operation of removing any sand left on the casting from the
mould and core, and also the removal of surplus metal that is always
Processes 57
associated with castings direct from the foundry, such as runners, risers,
feeders and so on.
FILAMENT WINDING – A composite manufacturing process where the
end product is to have a hollow internal shape. A filament of the fibre
is wound around a form, then bonded in place with the resin matrix.
FILE CUTTING – Incising the teeth on a file blank by means of a
mechanically driven chisel of high speed steel.
FILING – Operation of smoothing a rough surface or reducing the thickness
of a piece of material with a file.
FITTING – Finishing of mating parts to dimensions which will allow the
desired tightness or freedom of movement on assembly.
FLANGING – any process producing a flange. A flange may drawn on a
shell or a tube.
FLASH WELDING – Method of electric resistance welding of sections of
material by the formation of an electric arc between the edges of the
pieces to be joined and then pressing together with a light pressure
the molten edges.
FLATTING – Finishing operation carried out at the end of the work cycle
to remove the various hammer marks on the surface left in by the
previous shaping operations.
FLOAT GLASS – A glass manufacturing process that produces a continuous
sheet or ribbon of glass.
FORGING – A method of metal working in which the metal is hammered
into the desired shape, or is forced into a mould by pressure or
hammering, usually after being heated to a more plastic state. Hot
forging requires less force to form a shape than that of cold forging,
which is usually done at room temperature.
FORM GRINDING – Grinding of tool designed for machining and other
operations, in such a way that they are provided with the precise form
required for their work, or regrinding them to restore the form after it
has been lost as a result of service.
FORMING – Production of shaped part either by means of feeding in a tool
ground to shape or form of the part or by what is known as spinning.
FOUNDRY – Place where metal is melted and poured into required shapes.
FULL AUTOMATIC – Process in which all phases, once started, are

accomplished without the need of further manual input.
FULLERING – Similar to drawing and is a preliminary forging operation
which results in an elongated section between two heavier sections.
FUSION – Merging of two materials while in a molten state.
FUSION SAWING – Sawing material in the cold state by means of friction
discs, where a quick and rough cut is sufficient for the purpose.
FUSION WELDING – Welding process in which the metals are brought to
the temperature at which they melt, and are joined without hammering.
GALVANIZING – The application of a layer of zinc to the surface of iron
and steel for protection from corrosion.
GAS WELDING – Method of fusion welding in which a flame produced
by the combustion of gases is employed to melt the metal.
GEAR CUTTING – Production of gear wheels by the various forms of
shaping tools or rotary cutters.
GEAR HOBBING – Method of generating gear teeth by the use of a rotating
worm shaped cutter.
GEAR PLANING – Production of gear wheels by the use of cutters having
a sliding instead of a rotary action.
GENERATING GEAR TEETH – Production of correctly formed gear
teeth automatically, without the use of cutter of intricate shape.
GRAVITY DIE CASTING – Production of casting by pouring molten
metal into metallic moulds under the force of gravity only.
GRINDING – Finishing operation designed to give to parts already machined
the necessary precision of form and accuracy of dimensions by the
removal of excess material due to the cutting action of grains of abrasive
in a wheel or disc.
HAMMER WELDING – Uniting by heating two pieces of mild steel or
wrought iron to a soft malleable condition and hammering them
together on an anvil.
HEADING – A metal gathering or upsetting operation. Originally used for
production of screw and rivet heads in cold working process.
HONING – Process whereby a mirror finish is given to important bearing
surfaces by using hones or abrasive tools that normally employ both
rotary and longitudinal motion.
Processes 59
HOOKER PROCESS – It is usually a cold extrusion process and is commonly

employed for the production of small, thin walled copper and
aluminium seamless tubes and small cartridge cases.
HOT PRESSING – Forming or forging tough metals such as alloy steel at
high temperatures.
HOT PRESSURE WELDING – In this, bonding of two materials is brought
about by application of high pressure and production of mutual
deformation at temperatures below the melting range of either. Bonding
results from interlocking of the atoms of each piece with some
additional interlocking introduced by diffusion.
HOT ROLLING – A process of forming metals between rolls in which the
metals are heated to temperatures above the transformation range.
HYDROJET – A manufacturing process in which a material is cut by a high
pressure jet of water often containing an abrasive material to enhance
cutting action.
IMPACT EXTRUSION – In this process, a slug of metal is placed on a
solid bottom die, and the impact of the punch causes the metal to
flow back over the punch, which has a uniform section, slightly relieved.
INDEXING – Rotation of a workpiece by small uniform amounts, with or
without the aid of change wheels, mainly in connection with milling
operation.
INTERNAL GRINDING – Mechanical grinding of the internal bores of
gears, bushes and wide variety of machine parts and articles of
specialized character.
JOGGLING – Bending operation necessary for making a lap joint, yet keeping
the top surface flush.
KNURLING – A cold working process in which a series of sharp serrations
on a hardened steel roller are pressed into the material being knurled.
LANCING – A special form of piercing in which the entire contour is not
cut, the blanked material remaining as a tab.
LAPPING – Finishing process following grinding, and designed to produce
an exceptionally high degree of surface finish as well as a perfectly true
surface accurate to size within extremely close limits, by using very
fine abrasives.
LIMITS OF ACCURACY – Under a limit system, the workman aims at

producing a component, the acceptable size of which may fall between
two limits of size.
MAAG PROCESS – The process combines precision grinding of the flanks
of the gear teeth with a generating action which ensures that a correct
involute form will be maintained, or restored if distortion has taken
place as a result of hardening and heat treatment.
MACHINING – Machining is the art of using machine tools and cutting
tools in combination to reduce a piece of material to some specified
shape and dimensions.
METALLIZING – Process of spraying metal on to a metallic or non-metallic
surface, for building up of worn parts and for the protection of
components against corrosion.
MILLING – Operation in which a workpiece is given a specific shape or
form by means of a rotating cutter having many cutting teeth.
MILL WRIGHTING – General maintenance, repair and the making of
parts for machinery in a factory. A millwright is a craftsman in the
true sense of the word.
MOULDING – Practise of making moulds in which to pour molten metal
to form castings.
NOTCHING – Operation of cutting gaps on the edge of an article.
OPEN DIE FORGING or SMITH FORGING – A forging process in
which a drop hammer delivers blows of great force to a heated metal
that is shaped by manipulating it under the hammer.
OXY ACETYLENE CUTTING – A method of cutting heavy iron or steel
plates with the aid of an oxyacetylene torch.
PEENING – Work hardening the surface of metal by hammering or blasting
with shot (small steel balls). Peening introduces compressive stresses
on weld surfaces that tend to counteract unwanted tensile stresses.
PERFORATING – Piercing many small holes close together.
PICKLING – Process of cleaning (that is removing oxide film from) castings
by dipping them into an acid bath prior to plating, painting or further
cold working.
Processes 61
PIERCING – Producing holes in a blank by driving a punching tool into

the mass of the metal, while at the same time forcing the displaced
material into the particular form required by the part, this is known as
deep piercing.
PINNING – Scratching of the work surface during a filing operation caused
by small particles of metal getting wedged in front of the teeth of the
file.
PLANING – Producing flat or plane surface on a moving or other part by
removing metal from them by means of a cutting tool used in a planing
machine.
PLANISHING – Hammering operation by which the surface of a metal
component is brought to a first class condition for such operations as
polishing, plating and spraying.
PLATE MOULDING – Specialized form of moulding which consists of
one or more patterns mounted on a plate with the runner and ingates
being allowed for in the pattern.
PLATE EDGE PLANING – Smoothing and generally making true and
accurate the edges of large plates.
PLATING – The process of depositing a layer of one metal on another,
often done electrically, for the purpose of corrosion protection,
appearance, improved electrical conductivity, and other engineering
requirements.
POWDER METALLURGY – Forming parts out of powdered metal by
compacting the powder into a mould under great pressure and heating it.
PRESSING (hot) – Process of shaping a metal article by pressure and while
the metal is hot, and without any interstage forging.
PRESSURE WELDING – Method of uniting two sheets of metal by
squeezing them between heated dies.
PROFILING – Method of milling irregular forms by reproducing the form
of a master template, form or pattern.
PULTRUSION – A process that is opposite to extrusion and is used in
composite part manufacturing.
PUNCHING – The operation of cutting a hole in sheet metal using a die. The
hole material is scrapped. It is a shearing operation carried out in a press.
PUSH FIT – Class of fit which allows two parts to be assembled under
hand pressure.
REFINING OF METAL – Process of removal of impurities from metals
or alloys, resulting in improved properties or a different product.
Also refers to the refining of the grain of a coarse grained metal or
alloy.
REFLEX PROCESS – Photo printing process enabling copies to be made
from opaque originals.
RESISTANCE WELDING – Uniting two pieces of metal by the passage of
a heavy electrical current (high amperage current) while the surfaces
are pressed together.
RIVETING – A hammering operation in which the end of a metal pin (i.e.,
a rod or rivet) is pressed over or spread out. It may be either a hot or
cold working process.
ROLL FORMING – Process of passing strip stock between driven rollers
that form the strip to the shape desired.
ROLL GRINDING – The operation of grinding large rolls of steel mills or
calendars.
ROLL THREADING – A method of threading a part by pressing and rolling
between serrated dies.
RUBBER METAL BONDING – Bonding of natural rubber or synthetic
rubber to metal surfaces.
RUNNING FIT – Term used of parts which are assembled so that they are
free to rotate a type of clearance fit.
SAND BLASTING – Process used for cleaning metal surfaces, consists of
directing a stream of air under pressure, into which quartz sand is
introduced as an abrasive, on to the work.
SCREW CUTTING – Process of cutting a screw thread, usually in a lathe,
which involves copying a master screw called the leading or lead screw
in the nature of its pitch, but not its profile.
SEAMING – A bending and flattening of an interlocking fold, e.g., a stove
pipe seam.
SEAM WELDING – Process of closing a seam by a continuous resistance
weld.
Processes 63
SEASONING – Process by which the internal stresses existing in a piece of

material (which have been subjected to sudden changes of temperature,
as in casting or hardening or have been acted upon by heavy forces in
some machining operations) are removed.
SEMI AUTOMATIC – A process in manufacturing that requires some degree
of manual input, but acts without this input for at least part of the
cycle.
SERRATING – Method of forming by the use of a knurling tool a series of
straight serrations on the outer surface of a part, and parallel with it
along the axis of a part.
SHAPING – Operations performed on shaping machines.
SHAVING – A finishing operation that cuts a small amount of material from
the edge of a stamping to gain finish, accuracy and / or a square edge.
SHEARING – Cutting in a line by two opposed blades somewhat in a manner
of the ordinary household shears.
SHELL MOULDING – A form of gravity casting process metal (usually a
high melting temperature metal) in which the mould is made of a
thin shell of refractory material.
SHIELDED ARC WELDING – Process in which the molten weld metal is
protected from deterioration by an envelope of chemically reducing
or inert gas such as helium or argon.
SHRINKAGE FIT – Method of fitting a shaft or other part into an undersized
hole by heating the outer member until has expanded sufficiently.
SHOT PEENING – A cold working process in which the surface of a finished
part is pelted with finely ground steel shots or glass beads to form a
compression layer.
SILVER BRAZING – Brazing similar or dissimilar materials by using an
alloy of silver or other metals.
SINTERING – The process of fusing compacted material such as metal
powders into a solid or porous piece by applying heat sufficient to
bond, but not melt, the particles.
SLOTTING – Machine tool operation designed for finishing slots or other
enclosed parts not capable of being machined by normal planing or
shaping machine.
SLUSH DIE CASTING – Casting process which involves the filling of a

metallic mould with liquid metal or alloy, then inverting the mould
and pouring out the unfrozen metal from the center.
SMELTING – The process of heating ores to a high temperature in the
presence of a reducing agent such as carbon (coke) and of a fluxing
agent to remove the gangue.
SOLDERING – Operation of joining two or more parts together by molten
metal.
SPINNING – Cold drawing ductile sheet metal blanks into cylinders and
other shapes having rotational symmetry in a spinning lathe.
SPOT WELDING – Method of uniting sheet material by a series of localized
welds, produced by overlapping the edges of two sheets of metal and
fusing them together between copper electrode tips at suitably spaced
intervals, by means of a heavy electrical current. It is a form of resistance
welding.
STAMPING – Process of shaping metal under a falling weight.
STUD WELDING – Method of attachment of studs, screws, pins and similar
parts to plates and components by projection welding or arc welding.
SUNDERLAND PROCESS – Method of generating gears by the use of a
rack shaped cutter.
SURFACE GRINDING – Method of grinding designed to carryout the
removal of metal from the surface of a part or parts less expensively,
and with greater precision than could be achieved by machining processes
with cutting tools of steel or by hand or machine filing.
SURFACING – Movement of a lathe tool at right angles to the bed, to
work on the face or end surface of the work.
SWAGING – Compacting or necking down metal bars or tubes by
hammering or rotary forming.
SWEDGING – A cold die forging operation in which the metal is confined
and made to flow plastically into the punch and/or die impressions.
TAPER FIT – Type of fit in which a taper on the mating surfaces is combined
with an interference fit between the parts when assembled.
TAPER TURNING – Method of turning a taper on a work in the lathe.
TAP GRINDING – Sharpening of a tapping tool by grinding a taper on the
end and a clearance behind the cutting edge along this taper.
Processes 65
TAPPING – Operation of producing an internal thread by means of a tap.

TEMPER ROLLING – Process used in the production of tin -plate, in
which the annealed coils or strips are subjected to a small amount of
cold reduction in a four high mill in order to increase the stiffness of
the dead soft material without unduly reducing its ductility.
THERMIT WELDING – Method of uniting iron or steel parts by
surrounding the joint with thermit mixture at a sufficiently high
temperature to fuse the adjacent surfaces of the parts together.
THREAD GRINDING – Grinding of screw threads so as to remedy such
main variations in form or size as may have occurred as a result of the
hardening treatment of a part or tool.
THREAD MILLING – Operation of producing threads, both external and
internal, by means of thread milling cutters, either single or multi-ribbed,
according to the type of thread required and the design of the thread
milling machine employed.
THREAD ROLLING – Method of producing threads on screws, bolts,
screw caps etc. by rolling under pressure so as to make contact with the
rollers, to which the required pitch and form of screw threads have
previously been given.
TONGUE SHAPING – Forming a narrow projection (called a tongue)
from solid metal on a shaping machine.
TREPANNING – Removal of a circular piece of material from inside a steel
bar, plate or billet.
TRIMMING – Cutting away excess material left from previous operations.
TUMBLING – Process of cleaning, polishing, or crushing in which the
articles to be treated are mixed with balls, pieces of hard material or
abrasive and rotated in a more or less horizontal container.
TURNING – Process of reducing the diameter of materials held in a lathe
and the general name given to the process whereby material which is
turned by means of a driven spindle to which it is attached, is brought
into contact with a stationary tool having cutting edges.
UPSETTING – Process of increasing the cross-sectional dimensions when
forging, with consequent reduction in length. May be done manually
or by machine.
UPSET FORGING – The process of increasing the cross-section of stock at

the expense of its length.
VULCANIZATION – The process of treating crude or synthetic rubber or
similar plastic material chemically to give it useful properties, such as
elasticity, strength and stability.
WELDING – Joining of metals by the application of heat, without the use
of solder or any other metal or alloy having a lower melting point
than the metals being joined.
WHEEL TRUING – Cutting off irregularities on a rotating grinding wheel
with a diamond dresser.
WORM GRINDING – Grinding the threads of worm gear wheels as a
means of finishing them after the hardening operation.
WIRE DRAWING – Reduction in diameter of metal rods by drawing them
through conical openings in the blocks.
CHAPTER
5
MACHINES AND DEVICES
ACCELERATING PUMP – A small cylinder and piston fitted to some

types of SI engine carburettor, and connected to the throttle so as to
provide a momentarily enriched mixture when the engine is accelerated.
ACCUMULATOR – A device used for storing liquid under pressure
(sometimes used to smooth out pressure surges in a hydraulic system).
ACTUATOR – A device which uses fluid power to produce mechanical
force and motion.
AFTER COOLER – A device used on the turbocharged engines to cool the
air which has undergone compression.
AIR COMPRESSOR – A device used to increase air pressure.
AIR COOLED ENGINE – An engine that is cooled by the passage of air
around the cylinders, not by passage of a liquid through water jackets.
AIR CONDITIONER – A device used to control the temperature, humidity,
cleanliness and movement of air inside a room or a car.
AIR HAMMER – Power hammer, used for roughening out heavy forgings
in foundry work.
ALTERNATOR – A electrical generator that produces alternating current
(flow of current is considered to change in direction with each half
cycle).
ARBOR PRESS – A hand operated machine capable of applying high pressure
for the purpose of pressing parts together or removing parts.
AUTOMATIC LATHE – Specialized development from capstan and turret
lathes, with a full automatic cycle of turning, boring and drilling of
the workpiece, the function of the operator consists of loading or taking

finished work from the machine.
AUTOMATIC SCREW MACHINE – Fully automatic single spindle or
multiple spindle bar stock turret lathe.
AUTOMATIC WELDING MACHINE – Machine designed to carryout
high speed electric arc or resistance welding in mass production processes,
combining rapid production with accurate control of temperature.
BABCOCK AND WILCOX MILL – Dry grinding mill using rotary steel
balls.
BALANCE BOX – A box, filled with heavy material used to counter balance
the weight of the job and load of a crane of the cantilever type.
BALANCE CRANE – A crane with two arms, one having counterpoise
arrangements to balance the load taken by the other.
BALANCING MACHINE – A machine for testing the extent to which a
revolving part is out of balance, and to determine the weight and
position of the masses to be added or removed, to obtain balance.
BAND SAW – A narrow endless strip of saw blading running over and driven
by pulleys, as a belt used for cutting wood or metal to intricate shapes.
BAR LATHE – A small lathe of which the bed consists of a single bar of
circular, triangular or rectangular section.
BATTERY – An electrochemical device for storing energy in chemical form
so that it can be released as electricity. It is a group of electric cells
connected together.
BED PLATE – A cast iron or fabricated steel base, to which the frame of an
engine or other machine is attached.
BENCH LATHE – A lathe of small dimensions that can be mounted on a
bench or stand.
BENDING MACHINE – Machine designed to bend and fold sheet metal.
BLOWER – A low pressure air pump, usually of one rotary or centrifugal type.
BOARD DROP STAMP – A stamping machine in which the frictional
grip of opposed rollers on either side of a vertical board lifts a tup,
which falls when the roller pressure is released.
BOLT MAKING MACHINE – A machine which forges bolt by forming a
head on a round bar.
Machines and Devices 69
BOOST FAN – A fan for restoring the pressure drop of air or gas, used for
restoring the pressure drop in transmission pipes, and for supplying
air to furnaces.
BORING AND TURNING MILL (vertical) – Machine designed for boring
and turning castings and forgings.
BORING MACHINE (horizontal) – Machine used for boring, the spindle
being horizontal. In one type, the spindle only rotates and in another
type the spindle rotates and also has a horizontal movement.
BORING MACHINE (vertical) – Machine used for boring, the spindle being
vertical, very similar to a radial driller. Also called BORING MILL.
BRASS FINISHERS LATHE – Lathe specially designed with attachments
to machine brass work in quantities. The chief feature is the provision
of special hand operated rests.
BREAK LATHE – Heavy lathe with sliding bed to accommodate large work.
The machine comprises a fast and a loose head stock, and a base plate
upon which the bed is mounted.
BROACHING MACHINE – Machine designed to drive a tappered tool of
special form, known as a broach, through a hole or over a piece of
work, which bring the hole or the surface to the desired finished size.
CAPSTAN LATHE – Lathe designed to use a number of cutting tools
mounted on a rotating turret or capstan, and arranged to perform
turning operations successively.
CENTRE LATHE – Machine for carrying out turning, boring, screw cutting
operations on a work held between centers or in a chuck, but not for
repetition work.
CENTRIFUGAL GOVERNOR – A governor which uses fly weight force
to sense speed in order to control the fuel supplied to the combustion
chambers.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP – A pump using the centrifugal force produced
by a rapidly rotating impeller to displace liquid.
CENTRIFUGE – A device with a rapidly rotating bowl which separates the
impurities of a fluid by intense centrifugal force.
CIRCUIT BREAKER (lighting system) – A device that opens the circuit
when the current draw becomes excessive and closes when the current
flow is reduced.
CIRCULATING PUMP – The term applied to cooling water/ lubricating

oil pumps which effect circulation of fluid.
COMPRESSOR – A mechanical device to pump air, and thereby increase
the pressure.
CONDENSER (electrical) – An arrangement of insulated conductors and
dielectrics for the accumulation of an electric charge.
CUPOLA – Special type of blast furnace, chiefly used for the melting of cast
iron.
CYLINDRICAL GRINDER – Grinding machine designed to true up and
bring to size cylindrical parts such as shafts, spindles, rollers etc.
DIESEL ENGINE – An internal combustion engine having fuel injected
into the combustion chamber near the end of the compression stroke.
The fuel is ignited by the heat of compression only.
DIODE – A device that allows current to pass but only in one direction.
DISC GRINDER – Grinding machine embodying one or more abrasive
discs mounted horizontally on a vertical spindle, the work reposing
on the surface of a flat rotating carrier or table.
DRAWCUT SHAPER – Type of machine with a traverse tool movement.
In this, the work is fixed to the table which reciprocates under the
tool, the tool moving across the table for the purpose of obtaining
the feed.
DRILL GRINDER – Machine employed for the accurate grinding of the
cutting points and lips of twist drills.
DRILL PRESS – A fixed machine to drive a tool in rotary motion.
DRILLING MACHINE – Machine tool used for the production of holes
with a drill, fall under two classes—bench drilling machine and the
pillar drilling or upright drilling machine.
DROP STAMP – Machine for producing drop stampings and forgings,
may be free falling type or controlled falling type.
DRY CELL (dry battery) – A battery that uses no liquid electrolyte.
DUPLEX MILLER – Manufacturing type milling machine sometimes called
a duplex head miller, has two head stocks supporting two opposed
spindles. This enables two face mills or two horizontal cutters, to work
simultaneously on opposite sides of the workpiece.
DYNAMOMETER – A device for absorbing the power output of an engine

and measuring torque or horse power, so that it can be computed into
brake horsepower.
ELECTRIC DRILL – Hand operated, portable drilling machine driven by
electric power.
ENGINE – A machine that converts heat energy into mechanical energy.
The assembly that burns fuel to produce power is sometimes called
POWER PLANT.
FIXED DISPLACEMENT PUMP – A type of pump in which the volume
of fluid handled per cycle cannot be varied.
FINE BORING MACHINE – Machine used for boring to very close limits,
the holes in pistons, the bores in cylinder blocks, the bearings in motor
car and aero engine connecting rods, valves as fitted to steam and
other piping, may have a horizontal or vertical spindle.
FLY BALL GOVERNOR – Conventional type of centrifugal governor,
commonly called a mechanical governor.
FORGING MACHINE – Machine designed to shape a metal article while the
material is in the hot plastic state by applying the necessary force or pressure.
GANG DRILLING MACHINE – A drill press in which two or more drilling
spindles are mounted on a single table. This permits several drilling
operations to be made by moving the workpiece from spindle to spindle
in a planned sequence.
GAUGE SNUBBER – A device installed in the fuel line connected to the
pressure gauge, used to dampen pressure surges and thus provide a
steady reading. This helps protect the gauge.
GEAR TYPE PUMP – A pump which uses the space between the adjacent
teeth of gears for moving the liquid.
GENERATOR – An electromagnetic device used to generate electricity.
GOVERNOR – A device for controlling the speed of a prime mover, that
produces power.
GRINDING MACHINE – Machine designed for one or other or a
combination of the following functions. Grinding excess material off
parts previously machined by other methods; forming parts from blanks;
parting off lengths of material from rods, bars, billets and so on.
HEAT EXCHANGER – A device used to cool a fluid by transferring heat.

HOIST – Appliance or machine for lifting heavy material, also called lifting
tackle.
HYDRAULIC GOVERNOR – A governor using fluid to operate the fuel
control.
INTERCOOLER – Heat exchanger for cooling the air between the stages of
compression.
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE – An engine that burns fuel within
the cylinder itself as a means of developing power.
INTERNAL GRINDER – Machine used to finish internal surfaces such as
engine cylinders, ball bearing races, and similar work that requires
excellent accuracy and high finish.
JIG BORING MACHINE – An extremely accurate machine tool having a
precession spindle and a table to hold the work. The table and spindle
are movable with built in measuring devices. Used for spacing and
producing precision holes in tools, dies, and small lot production where
extreme accuracy is required.
KNUCKLE PRESS – Press designed to exert a great pressure. It is a strong,
heavily built and a rather slow-moving machine, and the standard range
varies from 60-100 tons per sq.inch.
LEVER – A simple machine for obtaining mechanical advantage. The lever
consists of a rigid arm or bar pivoted or bearing on a point called the
fulcrum and has a weight arm and a power arm.
LINCOLN MILLER – One of the manufacturing type milling machines,
all of which are characterized by the fixed table height with vertical
adjustment of the spindle, in contrast with the column and knee type
in which the work table is vertically adjustable.
LINISHING MACHINE – Automatic mirror polishing machine capable of
polishing one or more parts at a time on the same polishing band or
disc.
LIQUID COOLED ENGINE – An engine that is cooled by the circulation
of liquid coolant around the cylinders.
LUMSDEN GRINDER – Oscillating type of grinding machine. The tool
to be ground is secured in a chuck having a range of adjustments such
that any desired angle can be ground.
MACHINE – A mechanical device, mechanism, or apparatus which transmits

power and motion to perform work.
MACHINE TOOL – Type of power driven machine for cutting metal as
employed in machine shops, the term being usually restricted to those
which use the tool that produces waste material in the form of chips or
cuttings. Typical machine tools are lathes, planers, shapers, slotters,
borers, drills, broaches, millers and saws.
MANDREL PRESS – Press for the purpose of fitting mandrels to the bore
of the work.
MICHIGAN GEAR SHAPER – Machine incorporating a number of shaped
cutters, used to produce all the teeth on spur or helical gears
simultaneously.
MILLING MACHINE – Machine tool designed to remove metal from the
surface so as to size and shape it by means of a revolving multiple
toothed cutter called milling cutter.
MOTOR – A rotating electromagnetic device used to convert electrical energy
into mechanical energy.
MOTOR VEHICLE – Any type of self propelled vehicle mounted on wheels
or tracks.
MOULDING MACHINE – Mechanical device for making moulds at a
much faster rate.
MULTIPLE SPINDLE DRILLING MACHINE – Machine used for drilling
a large number of holes in one operation, built purely for repetition
work.
MULTIPLE SPINDLE LATHE – Machine, generally of the automatic type,
with up to six spindles mounted in a drum, this indexes in sequence, so
that a different operation is performed at each station, and one revolution
of the drum completes a piece of work.
NIBBLER – Machine designed to cut metals in sheet form to any required
shape. The machine comprises a small punch moving up and down at high
speed, and so taking a considerable number of small nibbles or cuts.
NUT TAPPING MACHINE – Device for tapping, that is providing the
screw threads on nuts.
OIL COOLER – A heat exchanger for lowering the temperature of oil.
OIL PUMP – Mechanical device to pump oil (under pressure) into the
various oil galleries.
OPTICAL COMPARATOR – A machine that enlarges the profile view of
a part and compares it to a standard profile.
OSCILLOSCOPE – A device for recording wave forms on a fluorescent
screen, proportional to the input voltage.
OVER RUNNING CLUTCH – A clutch mechanism that transmits power
in one direction only.
OVER SPEED GOVERNOR – A governor that shuts off the fuel or stops
the engine, only when excessive speed is reached.
PLAIN MILLER – Milling machine in which milling can be carried out in
a direction parallel with the axis of the arbor or at right angles to it ,
but no swivelling of the worktable is possible.
PLANING MACHINE – Machine for removing material from plane
surfaces by means of cutting tools fixed in the machine. It comprises
a bed, a travelling worktable on which the parts to be planed are carried,
standards, a cross slide, tool box and gearing. Also called PLANER.
PLANOMILLER – Milling machine, sometimes called a slab miller, similar
in shape and appearance to a planing machine, but having cutter hands
instead of clapper type tool boxes.
PLUNGER PUMP – A pump which operates and displaces fluid by means
of a plunger.
PNEUMATIC TOOL – Design of hand tool operated by air pressure e.g.,
pneumatic drill, pneumatic hammer or riveter.
POWER HAMMER – Machine for shaping metal while hot, grouped into
three classes, according to the power supplied: compressed air, steam or
hydraulic pressure.
POWER PLANT – The engine or power producing mechanism.
PRESS – Machine designed to manipulate sheet and strip metal so as to
produce a given shape or form.
PROFILING MACHINE – Form of milling machine designed to produce
delicate parts whose form or contour is irregular, particularly for mass
production by the use of jigs and so on, of small machine and other
parts, or where the production of interchangeable parts is desired.
PRONY BRAKE – A friction brake used for engine testing.

PUMP – Mechanical device in which a fluid, gas or liquid, is lifted or forced
against an external pressure, main types are reciprocating or piston
pumps, centrifugal pumps and rotary displacement pumps.
PUNCHING MACHINE – Machine designed to cut metal blanks from
the sheet. It may be of the crank or eccentric variety; the frame of the
C or double sided type. Also called PUNCH PRESS.
RADIAL DRILLING MACHINE – Machine with the drill head working
on an arm which has a rotary movement in the horizontal plane. In this
the drill spindle could be moved to the positions required instead of
moving the work for each hole to be drilled.
RADIATOR – A heat exchanger in which cooling water gives up heat without
coming into direct contact with air.
RAM (pump) – Hydraulic ram, also termed a water ram, by which water is
raised by its own momentum from a lower to a higher level.
RECTIFIER – A device, made of a diode or series of diodes, used in a welding
machine, for converting alternating current to direct current.
RELAY – An electromagnetic switch which utilizes variation in the strength
of an electric circuit to effect the operation of another circuit.
RELIEF VALVE – An automatic valve which is held shut by a spring of
correct strength. Excessive pressure opens the valve and releases some
of the gas or liquid.
RELIEVING LATHE – Machine for backing off the teeth of milling cutters
to facilitate machining of metals.
REVERBERATORY FURNACE – Furnace in which ore or metal is melted
by contact with the flame, but is not in contact with the fuel.
RHEOSTAT – A device to regulate current flow by varying the resistance in
the circuit.
RIGBY HAMMER – Steam hammer used for a wide range of forging work.
RIVETING MACHINE – Power operated machine used to form rivet heads.
May be classified according to the method of operation hydraulic,
pneumatic, or steam and the manner in which the rivet head is formed.
ROLLING MILL – Mill in which ingots, bars, blooms, billets etc., of steel
or other metals, are rolled to reduce or alter their sections.
ROLL TURNERS LATHE – Special design of lathe adapted for machining

rolls employed for printing machines, calenders or rolling mills.
ROOTS BLOWER – An air pump or blower similar in principle to a gear
type pump.
ROTARY BLOWER – Pump or compressor used to supply air or gas to a
furnace, forge, internal combustion engine or similar application. This
may be a vane, geared rotor, centrifugal or turbine type depending on
the particular application and the volume of air or gas or the pressure
required.
ROTARY PUMP – Pump used for liquid or gas, in which a rotating impeller
is used, may be vane type, gear type centrifugal and turbine type.
SALT BATH FURNACE – Liquid bath furnace used for case hardening and
heat treating of metals and alloys.
SAWING MACHINE – Machine tool for cutting metal by the use of a
blade band, or disc provided with cutting teeth.
SCAVENGING PUMP – A piston type of pump delivering scavenging air
to an engine.
SCRAP CUTTER – A type of double action press having a side ram whose
purpose is to cut the scrap metal into short lengths in order to facilitate
handling.
SCREW MACHINE – A power driven automatically controlled machine
tool designed to produce finished parts from bar stock. Cams control
the movement of the cutting tools, attachments and stock feeding
devices to complete workpieces automatically at high production rates.
SENSITIVE DRILLING MACHINE – Type of machine in which drills
are used with a sensitive hand pressure action.
SHAPING MACHINE – Type of machine used for the production of flat
or curved surfaces. In this the ram which carries the tool reciprocates
while the worktable which carries the workpiece moves perpendicular
to the ram movement. Also called SHAPER.
SHEARING MACHINE – Machine designed for cutting sheet metal. It
comprises a fixed blade and a shearing tool or blade.
SILENCER – A device for reducing the noise of intake or exhaust in an
engine.
SLOTTING MACHINE – Machine whose mechanical principles are much

the same as those of the shaping machine, but with the difference that
the ram on which the slotting tool is mounted moves vertically, as in
a vertical shaping machine. Also called SLOTTER.
SOLENOID – An electrically operated magnetic device used to do work.
SPOT WELDING MACHINE – Fixture in which sheets of metal to be
welded together are clamped between two electrodes through which
an electric current is passed.
SUPERCHARGER – An air pump driven by an engine, which fills the
cylinders with air at a higher pressure than atmospheric pressure.
SURFACE GRINDER – It is a general purpose machine tool used to finish
machine a plane surface. There are two types—horizontal and vertical.
TAPE CONTROLLED MACHINES – Machines which have partial
automation in which the movements of a machine tool and cutters
are automatically controlled by a magnetic tape or cards which have
been punched to indicate data previously planned for the sequence of
each operation to be performed.
TAPPING MACHINE – Machine designed to cut threads in holes in nuts
and other parts.
TESTING MACHINE – Machine designed to apply accurately measured
loads to a test piece and, in many cases, to measure the resulting
extension, compression or deflection, in order to ascertain the physical
properties of materials.
THYRISTOR – A type of semiconductor device that acts as a switch. It turns
on when a certain voltage is applied to the gate, and it turns off when
the current flowing between the other two terminals stops or reverses.
TOOL GRINDER – Special machine for the grinding of turning, planing
and other tools.
THREAD MILLER – A machine that cuts threads by using a rotating milling
cutter.
TROCHOID PUMP – An oil pump consisting primarily of a pair of rotors
of special shape.
TURBO CHARGER – An exhaust gas driven turbine directly coupled to a
compressor wheel.
TURRET LATHE – Machine generally larger than a capstan lathe, but using
similar tools. The main difference between them is that the turret saddle
has longitudinal movement on the guides of the bed.
UNIVERSAL GRINDER – Type of grinding machine having a wide range
of application and specially suited to work that has to be ground at an
unusual angle. Provided with a swivel table and headstock and a wheel
head that can be rotated on its base.
UNIVERSAL MILLING MACHINE – Design of milling machine of the
column and knee type, roughly similar in general design to plain
milling machine (column and knee type), but usually of less robust
construction and having additional features that widen its field of
usefulness e.g., a worktable that swivels in a horizontal plane so that it
is not restricted to two right angled motions.
VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE – Milling machine in which the cutter
spindle rotates about a vertical axis (as on most drilling machines),
but which in certain other respects has much in common with a plain
miller.
VERTICAL TURRET LATHE – A lathe with a vertical spindle and ways
that carries the work in a chuck and has cutting tools mounted in a
five position turret and side heads.
VIBRATION DAMPER – A specially designed device mounted to the front
of an engine crank-shaft to reduce torsional vibration.
WANKEL ENGINE – A rotary type engine in which a three lobe rotor turns
eccentrically in an oval chamber and thus performs cycle of operations.
WATER BRAKE – A device for engine testing in which the power is dissipated
by churning water.
WELDING MACHINE – Equipment used to perform the welding
(joining) operation, for example, spot welding machine, arc welding
machine, seam welding machine etc.
CHAPTER
6
MACHINE COMPONENTS AND
ATTACHMENTS
ANGLE PLATE – Right angled metal plate used to secure parts during
machining or when taking measurements.
ANVIL – Heavy block on which to hammer and shape metals.
APRON – The function of a lathe apron is to carry the mechanism for sliding
and surfacing motions and screw cutting.
BACK GEARS – Gears applied to machine tools to increase the number of
speed changes obtainable with a cone or step pulley belt drive.
BASTERED THREAD – A screw thread which does not confirm to any
recognized standard dimensions.
BED – One of the principal parts of a machine tool having accurately machined
ways or bearing surfaces for supporting and aligning other movable
parts of the machine.
BELLCHUCK – Hollow cylindrical chuck bolted to the main chuck for
the purpose of giving additional support to work of awkward shape.
BELT SHIFTER – A flat hardwood strip of suitable length having shifter
fingers attached at one end and used to shift a belt from one pulley to
another or to replace a belt which has run off a pulley on an overhead
drive shaft.
BOLSTER – Support for dies and tools in forging presses and drop stamps.
BOX ANGLE PLATE – An angle plate made of cast iron, usually with slots
cast in it and accurately machined on the outside.
BOX JIG – A jig made in the form of a box into which the job to be drilled
is inserted.
BULL WHEEL – The large gear wheel of a planer which meshes with the
rack under the table and drives it. The large crank gear of a shaper is
often called a bull wheel.
CAP SCREW – A finished screw, used for fastening two pieces together by
passing the screw through a clearance hole in one part and screwing it
into a tapped hole in the other. Heads may be hexagon, round, flat,
fillister or socket type.
CARRIAGE – A principal part of lathe. The carriage carries the cutting tool
and moves along the ways of the lathe. It contains the saddle, compound
slide, and apron.
CARRIER – Tool for driving work which is held between centers, as in a
lathe.
CATCH PLATE – Plate screwed to the nose of the lathe spindle for the
purpose of driving work held between centers, through the medium
of a carrier or driving dog.
CENTRE SQUARE – Device to enable the rapid location of the centre of
the flat end of a cylindrical workpiece.
CHANGE GEARS – An assortment of gears which are supplied with a
machine for changing speed ratio between driver and driven parts of
the machine. Change gears on a lathe make it possible to cut threads
of different pitches and obtain different feeds per revolution. On
milling machines they are used to obtain different leads when milling
spirals and helices.
CHUCK – Appliance for gripping tools, such as drills, or for holding work
in a lathe.
CLAPPER BOX – A part of the shaper tool head that holds the tool post. A
clapper block is hinged into the clapper box to permit the cutting tool
to swing upward on the return stroke.
COLLET – Means of gripping a bar to give quicker chucking, particularly in
capstan work for rapid and accurate setting.
CLAMP – Device for holding work during marking out, measuring,
machining, fitting or grinding.
COMPOUND SLIDE – A principal part of a lathe, frequently called a
COMPOUND REST, consisting of an upper and lower part dovetailed
Machine Components and Attachments 81
together. The lower part or base is graduated in degrees and can be

swivelled to any angle for turning short tapers and angles. The upper
slide carries the tool post and tool holder.
CONE PULLEY – A stepped pulley having two or more diameters and
made in one piece.
DEAD CENTER – The center fitted to the tailstock of a lathe and so named
because it does not rotate. Also the exact or precise center of an object.
DEMAGNETIZER – Device for removing permanent magnetism from
steel tools and parts.
DIE HEAD – Device to enable small or medium sized work to be screwed
in capstan or turret lathes. The die head consists of a cylindrical body
with a shank to enable it to be clamped in the turret.
DIE SCREW – Tool used when threading cylindrical pieces beyond the
capacity of a die plate.
DISTANCE BLOCK – Accurately ground steel block used to hold a
component at a set distance from another surface, or to operate a trip
mechanism tool when the tool carrier or worktable reaches the desired
position.
DIVIDING HEAD – Indexing or dividing head is an attachment used on
the milling machine table, for accurately dividing the circumferences
of components for grooving or fluting, gear cutting, cutting of splines,
squares or hexagons.
DOG – A tool or accessory which can be clamped on a workpiece to drive it
while held between centers, as a lathe dog. Also, the name given to a
projecting part on a machine tool which strikes and moves another
part, such as the reversing dogs on a grinding machine or planer.
DRIFT PIN – A round tapered steel pin used to align rivet holes so that the
rivet will pass through the holes easily.
DRILL ADAPTER – An attachment used to fit square shank drills and
morse taper sockets.
DRILL CHUCK – A self centering tool holding device, for driving drills
and other such cutting tools in a drilling machine.
DRILL DRIFT – A wedge shaped piece of steel that is used to remove
tapered shank tools, such as drills from spindles, sockets and sleeves.
DRILL HOLDER – An attachment used for holding drills in the turret of a

capstan lathe.
DRILLING JIG – Device, usually of hardened steel plate, for holding a piece
of work in a definite position, provided with guide bushes through which
drills can pass so as to locate holes in exact positions in the work.
DRILL SLEEVE – A steel part tapered inside and outside which fits onto
the tapered shank of a cutting tool, such as a drill or reamer, to adapt
it to the size of the hole in the drill press spindle.
DRILL VISE – A work holding device in which the work is set and held
while drilling and other operations are performed.
DRILL SOCKET – An adapter for holding taper shank drilling tools which
have a taper shank larger than the taper hole in the drilling machine.
One end is tapered outside to fit the drilling machine spindle hole
while the opposite end has a larger taper hole to receive the cutting
tool shank.
EXPANDING MANDREL – It is used to hold work on an internal diameter.
It is similar in principle to a spring collet. Three jaws are arranged to
expand outward and clamp the work, as a tapered pin is forced inward.
FACE PLATE – Flat, slotted plate screwed on the nose of the lathe spindle,
or bolted to a flange, to enable work to be machined which cannot be
held in the chuck.
FEATHER – A sliding key sometimes called a spline, used to prevent a
pulley, gear, or other part from turning on a shaft, but allows it to
move lengthwise. The feather is usually fastened to the sliding piece.
FEED STOP – Method of tripping the power feed of a machine tool at a
predetermined point.
FIXTURE – Device by which a component to be machined is correctly
located and held during a machining operation.
FLASK – Complete moulding box that contains the sand that form the
mould.
FOLLOWER REST – A support for long, rather small diameter work to be
turned in the lathe. The rest is attached to the carriage and set close to
the cutting tool. It travels along with the cutting tool to prevent the
work from springing away from the cutting tool.
FOOT STOCK – Part of a dividing head attachment for the milling machine.
It contains a center for supporting the workpiece, the same as the
tailstock does for a lathe.
FOUR JAW CHUCK – A chuck that provides a more powerful grip on the
work by means of four jaws which may be adjusted independently, so
that irregular shapes may be gripped, and the fact that the jaws can be
reversed enables the work to be gripped inside as well as from the outside.
GIB – An angular or wedge like strip of metal placed between two machine
parts, usually sliding bearings to ensure a proper fit and provide
adjustment for wear.
GOGGLES – These are worn when tool grinding, to protect the eyes from
the flying particles of grit.
HALF NUT – A mechanism attached to the apron of a lathe and operated
by a lever. The lever opens and closes a nut that has been split lengthwise
so that the two halves of the nut can be closed upon the lead screw
when threads are being cut. Also called SPLIT NUT.
HAND VICE – Small vice used for holding light articles such as pins, screws
etc., especially during heat treatment.
HAND WHEEL – Any of the wheels found on machine tools for moving
or positioning parts of a machine to hand feed, as the tailstock handwheel
on a lathe.
HARDIE HOLE – Square hole in the face of an anvil which forms the
location for the hardie and other tools used by the smith, such as
small swages, fullers and cutters.
HEAD STOCK – An assembly containing the headstock spindle and the
mechanism for driving it which is fastened permanently to the left
end of the lathe bed.
HOLDING BLOCK – Fixture designed to hold small or thin gauge parts
which cannot readily be held in a vice.
IDLER GEARS – A gear or gears placed between driver and driven gears
when the distance between the driver and driven gears would require
too exceptionally large gears. These gears have no effect on the speed or
ratio between the driver and driven gears.
INDEPENDENT CHUCK – A three jaw chuck, in which each of , the
jaws may be moved independently of the other two.
INDEX CRANK – The crank handle of an index or dividing head used for
turning the spindle through a full turn or fractional part of a turn. A
pin on the crank fits into the holes of the index plate.
INDEX PLATE – A thin circular plate having various circles of holes. It is
attached to the index head and used for obtaining fractional parts of a
turn of the index crank. A set of three or more index plates may be
furnished for an index head.
INTERMEDIATE GEAR – An idler or loose gear on a stud for transmitting
power between a driver and a driven gear.
JACOB’S CHUCK – Gear operated drill chuck of three jaw type for use on
drilling or milling machines and lathes.
JACOB’S TAPERS – Standard system of tapers which are used for drill
chucks and spindles.
JIG – A device that locates and holds a workpiece and guides the cutting tool.
JIG BUSH – Hardened steel cylindrical guide, made a press fit into the body
of the jig for a drill or reamer to pass through.
JIG PLATE – Flat steel plate provided with a number of bushed holes and
used to locate the drill when drilling a component.
JOURNAL BOX – A housing or support for a bearing which contains the
journal of the shaft.
KEYS – Metal pieces of various designs which fit into a slot in a shaft and
project above the shaft to fit into a mating slot in the center hole of a
gear or pulley to provide a positive drive between the shaft and the
gear or pulley.
KNEE – A principal part of a column and knee type milling machine which
slides vertically on the column and carries the saddle and table.
LADLE – Receptacle used for transporting molten metal.
LATHE CARRIER– It is clamped on a bar and engaged with a projecting
dog on the catch plate fitted to the lathe head stock. This enables the
bar to revolve between the centres.
LATHE CENTERS – Solid steel pieces which have a tapered shank and 60°
pointed end. A live center fits into the headstock spindle and a dead
center fits into the tailstock spindle to support and provide bearing
points for the work turned between centers.
LAYOUT PLATE – A smooth finished flat steel plate on which work and
tools may be placed and used while laying out a job.
LEAD SCREW – Master screw used for cutting a screw thread in a lathe.
LIVE CENTER – A lathe center that fits into the headstock spindle and so
named because it revolves.
LEVER – A simple machine for obtaining mechanical advantage. The lever
consists of a rigid arm or bar pivoted or bearing on a point called the
fulcrum and has a weight arm and a power arm.
LOCK NUT – A type of nut that is prevented from loosening under vibration.
The locking action is accomplished by squeezing, gripping or jamming
against the bolt threads.
LOOSE PULLEY – A pulley which turns freely on a shaft so that a belt can
be shifted from the driving pulley to the loose pulley in order to stop
a machine driven by an overhead belt drive.
MACHINE VICE – A work holding device used on machine tools to seat
and hold work securely in position while machining is done.
MAGNETIC BLOCK – Laminated block for use in conjunction with a
magenetic chuck.
MAGNETIC CHUCK – Magnetic device for holding work during
machining and grinding.
MANDREL – A turned, hardened and accurately ground cylindrical bar or
shaft or spindle, incorporating a slight taper, used for holding bored
parts in a lathe while the outside surface is being turned.
MANDREL PRESS – Press for the purpose of fitting mandrels to the bore
of the work.
MANIPULATOR – Fixture in which work is held for welding.
MILLING HEAD – An attachment or device for the milling machine to
add to the range of operations for increasing production, versatility,
and accuracy of the machine. A vertical attachment makes it possible
to do vertical milling on a horizontal machine.
MITER GEARS – Bevel gears which have a center or pitch angle of 45°.
MORSE TAPER – Standard system of tapers widely used on lathes and
drilling machines.
MULTIPLE THREAD SCREW – A screw with two or more threads cut

around the periphery of the workpiece to provide an increased lead
with a specified pitch.
NUT – A metal fastener of square, hexagon or other shape having an internal
thread which screws onto a bolt, stud, or arbor.
NUT BOX MECHANISM – In a lathe it is used to engage and disengage
the lead screw for thread cutting. This comprises a pair of half-nuts
capable of sliding in vertical slides in or out of mesh with the lead
screw.
OVERARMS – Adjustable supports for the end of a milling cutter arbor
farthest from a milling machine spindle.
PARALLEL JAW VICE – Type of vice in which the gripping faces between
the sliding and fixed jaws are always parallel, irrespective of the gap
between them.
PILOT – A guide at the end of a counterbore which fits freely into the
drilled hole to hold and align the body of the counterbore while cutting
takes place.
PINION – The smaller of a pair of gears regardless of the size or type.
PIN VICE – Small vice with self centering jaws useful for gripping small
rods, wires, drills and files.
PIPE THREAD – A 60° thread form having flattened crests and roots which
are cut on a taper having 3/4 inch taper per foot. Pipe thread is used on
piping and tubing.
PIPE VICE – Clamping device designed to hold work of tubular or circular
section.
POWER ASSISTED CHUCKS – These are used where great holding power
is required. These are operated with auxiliary power such as compressed
air or oil pressure. Where simplicity of chucking is the first consider-
ation, magnetic chucks are used.
PULLEY – A wheel having a plain or V groove rim over which a belt runs
for the transmission of power from one shaft to another.
QUICK CHANGE GEARBOX – A cluster of gears on a machine tool
arranged in such a way that a sliding gear can be moved by a lever to
mesh with anyone of the gears in the cluster to obtain desired ratio of
speeds, feeds or thread pitches.
QUICK RETURN MECHANISM – A mechanism on various machine

tools to give a table, ram or other movable part a rapid movement
during the return or non-cutting stroke.
QUILL – A hollow shaft that revolves on a solid shaft, carrying pulleys,
gears or clutches. When the clutch is closed, the quill and shaft revolve
together.
RACK – A straight metal strip having teeth that mesh with those of a gear to
convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion or just the opposite.
RATCHET – A gear with triangular shaped teeth to be engaged by a pawl which
gives it intermittent motion or locks it against backward movement.
RELIEVING ATTACHMENT – A device or mechanism fastened to the
cross feed of a lathe to provide a reciprocating motion to the cutting
tool, to obtain a clearance in the back of the cutting edges of the teeth
when making taps, milling cutters or hobs.
REVERSE LEVER – A lever on the machine tool for changing the direction
of some movable part such as the lead screw on a lathe.
REVOLVING LATHE CENTRE – It is fitted in the tailstock instead of the
fixed type of loose head centre, in some cases, so that the high speeds
of work revolutions become possible.
RIGHT HAND THREAD – A screw thread which advances into the mating
part when turned clockwise or to the right.
RIVET – A one piece fastener consisting of a head and a body and used for
fastening two or more pieces together by passing the body through a
hole in each piece and then forming a second head on the body end.
It cannot be removed except by taking off the head.
ROLLER STEADY – Type of steady fitted with roller points to support
long or slender work in a lathe.
ROTARY TABLE – An attachment for the milling machine consisting of a
round work holding table provided with T slots and operated by a
handwheel attached to a worm or worm gear for rotating the table. A
scale graduated in degrees permits the work to be moved any number
of degrees for spacing holes or milling radii. Also called CIRCULAR
MILLING ATTACHMENT.
SCREW – A helix formed or cut on a cylindrical surface which may advance
along the axis to the right or left. The helix may be single or multiple.
SCREW JACK – Device used for lifting a heavy load by means of a screw.
SCREW THREAD – A ridge of uniform section or shape in the form of a
helix on the external or internal surface of a cylinder, or in the form of
a conical spiral on the external or internal surface of a cone.
SELF CENTERING CHUCK – Design of chuck for holding hexagonal or
cylindrical work, operating in such a way that the work is automatically
centered.
SET SCREW – Usually a hardened steel screw having either no head or a
square head and with various designs of points or ends to lock or
tighten adjustable machine parts in position on a shaft.
SHOULDER SCREW – A screw having two or more diameters or
shoulders and commonly used for supporting levers and other
machine parts that have to operate freely. The screw body is slightly
longer than the thickness of the piece pivoted on the screw so as to
allow the piece to move freely when the screw is set up tightly against
the bottom of the shoulder.
SLEEVE – A round piece of metal having a straight or tapered hole which
fits over or into another piece to adapt parts to fit, as a taper sleeve for
a lathe center.
SLIDE REST – A tool holding slide used on machine tools. It is usually
adjustable for holding and guiding cutting tools. The compound slide
or rest used on an engine lathe is an example. The compound slide
permits the tool to be fed at any angle.
SLIDING TABLE (compound) – Device to enable holes to be drilled or
bored very accurately with respect to each other.
SNAP FLASK – Strongly constructed wooden moulding box, split diagonally
with hinges on one corner and locking latches on the opposite corner,
so that the box may be removed from the mould prior to casting.
SOCKET HEAD – Screw threads having a hexagonal or other form of
recessed socket in the head so that the screw can be turned with a
wrench or key, as a hexagonal key.
SPLINES – Multiple keys cut in either a shaft or a hole of parts that are made
to slide or move lengthwise on a shaft, as a sliding gear transmission.
SPLIT NUT – A nut which has been cut length wise so as to open for quick
adjustment.
SPRING COLLETS – A type of draw in collet made of hardened steel and

having three slots or saw cuts which permit the collet to be closed tightly
against a tapered sleeve by the draw bar.
SQUARE THREAD – A form of screw thread in which the cross-section of
the thread forms a square, making the width of the thread equal to the
width of the space between the threads.
STAKE – Small anvil used for sheet metal work.
STEADY REST – A support attached to the ways of a lathe for turning long
workpieces. Used to prevent slender work from springing away from
the cutting tools or to permit machining operations to be performed
on the end of the workpiece. Some times called a center rest or STEADY.
STEP BLOCK – A block of steel or cast iron having a series of steps and
used for supporting the ends of machine clamps when clamping work
to the table.
STEPPED CONE PULLEY – A cone pulley having several diameters or
steps for obtaining different speeds on machine tools.
STOPS – Devices attached to the movable table or ram or parts of a machine
tool, such as a milling machine table, to limit the amount of travel.
STUD – A plain cylindrical piece having a threaded portion of suitable length
at each end or a continuous thread over the entire length. One end is
screwed into a machine or workpiece after which a second part is placed
over the stud and held in place by a nut.
SWIVEL SLIDE – Device to enable the toolpost slide of a lathe to be set at
an angle for taper turning or cutting V threads.
SWIVEL VICE – A bench or machine vice for holding workpiece which
may be rotated on its base to the desired angle or position.
TABLE (marking off) – Table used for marking off, or setting out a job to
be machined.
TAILSTOCK – The principal part of the engine lathe, used for supporting
one end of a workpiece by means of a center point held in the spindle.
May be moved along the ways and clamped in different positions and
offset from the true axis of the lathe for turning tapers.
TAPER PINS – Steel pins used for locating and holding machine parts in
position on a shaft.
TAPER TURNING ATTACHMENT – Device fitted to a lathe, to cause

movement of cutting tool at an angle to the axis of the lathe so as to
produce the required taper on the workpiece.
TAYLOR CHUCK – Special chuck designed so that the jaws are supported
at right angles to the direction of the pressure.
T-BOLT – A threaded bolt having a square or rectangular end which fits into
the T slot of a machine table for clamping workpieces.
THREAD CHASING DIAL – A device consisting of a short shaft with a
dial at the top and a worm gear at the bottom to mesh with the lead
screw on an engine lathe which is attached to the lathe carriage, so
that the operator can engage the split nut lever at the correct position
when cutting screw threads.
THREE JAW CHUCK – Chuck for gripping general work using three jaws,
usually concentrically, simultaneously, a feature which makes the chuck
particularly suitable for holding either round or hexagon stock.
THUMB SCREW – A type of screw having a winged or knurled head for
turning by hand when a quick and light clamping effect is desired.
TOOL HEAD – The part of machine tool that carries the cutting tool and
is adjustable for moving and setting the cutting tool into the workpiece
being machined.
TOOL HOLDER – Slotted shank in which the tool bit can be held.
TOOL POST – A clamping device for holding tool holder in position on a
machine tool.
TOP SLIDE – Means of traversing the tool on the tool post of a lathe.
T-SLOT – A recessed or undercut slot made with a special T shaped cutter in
the tables of machine tools to receive the square head of a T bolt for
clamping workpieces.
TUMBLER GEARS – Two gears acting as idler gears between the spindle
gear and the fixed stud gear on a lathe gear train. Used to reverse the
direction of rotation of the lead screw for thread cutting or the feed
rod for turning.
TURRET – Rotatable device for holding several cutting tools set in position
to operate in turn.
TWO JAW CHUCK – Chuck furnished with two jaws, diametrically
opposite.
U-BOLT – An externally threaded fastener bent in the shape of the letter U

and with both ends threaded.
U-CLAMP – A flat or square piece of metal bent or formed into the shape
of the letter U and used for clamping workpieces on a machine table.
UNIVERSAL CHUCK – Design of chuck in which the jaws are moved
simultaneously by gear wheels, by a scroll or by a combination of
both. Also called concentric chuck or self centering chuck.
UNIVERSAL INDEX CENTERS – A dividing head and foot stock with a
set of change gears to gear the spindle of the index head to the index
crank for differential indexing, and to gear the index head to the lead-
screw of the table of a milling machine for helical milling.
UNIVERSAL VICE – A work holding device usually used on the milling
machine which has either two or three swivel settings so that workpieces
may be set at any desired angle including compound angles.
V-BLOCK – Block of metal having a V-shaped groove cut in its top surface
in which can rest a circular shaft.
V-SUPPORT – Steady in the form of a V, to support the work near the
cutting tool.
VICE – A mechanical device of many designs and sizes in which workpieces
are clamped for hand and machine operations.
VICE CLAMP – Piece of soft material so shaped as to enable it to fit over
each of the hardened jaws of a vice in order that workpieces may be
gripped without damage.
V-WAYS – The top part of the bed of a lathe, planer or other machine bed
which acts as a bearing surface for aligning and guiding the moving
parts, such as the carriage of a lathe.
WAYS – The flat or V shaped bearing surfaces on machine tools over which
other movable parts slide.
WOODRUFF KEY – A flat semicircular piece of metal used as a key in a
special circular key seat slot cut in a shaft to drive a gear, pulley or
other part.
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CHAPTER
7
TOOLS AND CUTTERS
ABOUTSLEDGE – The large hammer used by a blacksmith’s mate, turn-

about with the smaller hammer of the blacksmith.
ANGLE CUTTER – Type of milling cutter used for single or double angles.
The term angle cutter covers three types of milling cutters, the single
or half-angle, the double angle and the equal or combined angle.
BACK STICK – Piece of wood used when spinning sheet metal by hand in
a lathe.
BASTERED FILE – File of approximately middle grade in regard to cut or
tooth pitch.
BELL CENTER PUNCH – Device used for rapidly locating and marking
the centre of the flat end of a cylindrical workpiece, preparatory to
heavier centre punching, centre drilling, turning in a lathe etc.
BLANKING AND CUPPING TOOL – Tool used to cut a blank and
form a cup from sheet or strip metal at one stroke of the press.
BLOW PIPE – Gas welding torch in which oxygen and acetylene are mixed
and ejected from a nozzle.
BOILER TAP – Hand tap specially designed for tapping holes for use with
boiler stays.
BOLSTER – It is a block of mild steel with a hollow in it to accommodate
the rivet head.
BORING BAR – Bar carrying a cutter or cutters to enable holes to be bored
which are larger in diameter than can be conveniently drilled by means
of twist drills.
BORING TOOL – Single or double ended tool for machining a drilled or

cored hole.
BOX SPANNER – Spanner in the form of a hollow tube, shaped at the end
(or ends) to fit a nut.
BOX WRENCH – A type of closed end wrench made in many styles for
specific sizes and shapes of bolt heads or nuts.
BREAST DRILL – Has an adjustable breast plate, by means of which a
much greater pressure may be applied to the drill. This hand-drill has
double ratio drive.
BROACH – A long tool with number of cutting teeth which is pushed or pulled
through a hole or across a surface to form the desired shape and size.
CAULKING TOOL – Type of tool used to close the riveted joints on pressure
vessels, for instance, a boiler, or compressed air reservoir.
CEMENTED CARBIDE TOOL – Lathe or other cutting tool fitted with
a tip made from either tungsten, tantalum or titanium carbide, held
in a matrix of cobalt.
CENTER DRILL – A short, stubby, straight shank, two fluted twist drill
that is used when center holes are drilled and reamed in the ends of a
shaft in separate operations.
CENTER POP – A dot punch or sharply pointed center punch.
CENTER PUNCH – Hand tool employed for marking out points or centers
e.g., when marking the center of a shaft preparatory to drilling or center
drilling.
CENTER REAMER – A countersink having a 60° included angle for sizing
and smoothing center holes in workpieces to be turned or ground
between centers.
CERAMIC TOOLS – A newer cutting tool material made of aluminium
oxide or silicon carbide and held together by binders or additives of
other materials.
CHAIN CUTTER – Cutter of chain type used in a chain mortise machine
for the mortising of wood.
CHASER – Tool for forming or finishing screw threads in a lathe.
CHIP BREAKER – A groove ground into the top of the toolbit of a lathe,
shaper or planer to keep the chips short.
Tools and Cutters 95
CHISELS – These are hand working tools, made from carbon tool steel,
usually of octagonal section. The end of the chisel is shaped to the
required form and finished by grinding.
COMPARATOR – Instrument for comparing the dimensions of a
component with a standard of length.
COMPASS – Instrument used for describing arcs and circles.
COTTER MILL – Also called slotting end mill, cottering or key seating
cutter.
COUNTERBORE – When a drilled hole is to be enlarged concentrically for
a portion of its length, a counterbore is used. It consists of a series of
blades arranged to cut on the ends only, and a smooth pilot slightly
smaller than the drilled hole.
CROSS CUT FILE – File which is parallel throughout its length and in
section tapers more sharply than a knife file, used extensively for
sharpening the teeth of cross cut saws.
CROSS CUT OR CAPE CHISEL – It is forged so that the cutting edge is
slightly wider than the body, this is to ensure that the chisel does not
bind in the cut when it is used for deep grooves.
CROSS PEEN HAMMER – A hammer with a wedge shaped peening end
at right angles to the direction of the handle.
CURLING TOOL – Tool designed and made to curl the edge of a metal
article.
DEAD SMOOTH FILE – A file having teeth of very fine cut in other
words, with its teeth very closely spaced or pitched.
DIAMOND POINT CHISEL – A type of cold chisel ground with a
diamond point.
DIAMOND WHEEL – An abrasive wheel composed of a bonding agent,
into which crushed and screened diamond particles of appropriate
size are introduced to form the abrasive cutting face.
DIE (drawing) – Tool of angular form through which a shell is pushed,
tubes, sections, bar and wire are pulled so as to give the required size
and cross-sectional shape.
DIE NUT – Tool, shaped like a square or hexagonal nut, and provided with
cutting edges, employed for cutting or sizing external threads.
DIE PLATE – Tool in the form of a flat plate of good quality cast steel
having a number of drilled and tapped holes, employed in hand cutting
screw threads on rods of about 5 mm in diameter or smaller.
DOT PUNCH – Light type of sharply pointed centre punch used for light
centre dotting along a scribed line to make it more easily visible or to
ensure a permanent record of its location.
DOUBLE CUT FILE – A file having teeth formed by two intersecting
series of parallel chisel cuts.
DREADNOUGHT FILE – A file with coarsely pitched curved teeth or
chisel form produced by cutting curved tooth spaces in the blank.
DRESSER – Tool used in sharpening grinding wheels of abrasive material,
usually a diamond tool.
DRILL – Tool used for the production of round holes in metal and other
solid material.
DRILL POST AND RATCHET – Portable hand operated drilling machine,
comprising three parts—the post or pillar, the arm, and the ratchet brace.
EMERY WHEEL – A grinding wheel made from emery or natural abrasive.
END MILL – A milling cutter having a straight or tapered shank for mounting
into a holder for driving. The cutting portion has teeth on the end as
well as on the circumference.
EXPANSION REAMER – A type of hand or machine reamer in which the
diameter may be slightly increased by an expanding screw.
EXY OUT – A tool for removing a broken stud or bolt from a hole. A hole is
drilled into or through the portion of the stud remaining in the hole.
Then the exy out is screwed into the hole and when the tool is turned
counter clockwise, the broken portion is removed from the hole.
FACE MILL – A milling cutter similar to an end mill but of a larger size.
FEELER GAUGE – Leaf gauge, rather like a multibladed pen knife, the
various leaves or blades all having different thicknesses.
FILE – Steel tool used for smoothing rough surfaces, and for reducing the thickness
of material by abrasion. The teeth may be single cut or double cut.
FILE CARD – Device fashioned like a wire brush, used to clean dirt and
chips from the teeth of a file.
FINISHING TOOL – Tool for taking a light finishing cut, a knife edge tool
used with a fine feed or a round nose finishing tool with a coarse feed.
FLAT CHISEL – Commonest form of cold chisel having a long single cutting
edge.
FLAT DRILL – Type of drill in general use before the introduction of the
twist drill, having flat sides and, therefore, no true cutting action, the
flat drill is inclined to have a scraping action rather than cutting.
FLAT FILE – General utility file having a rectangular section, parallel in
both width and thickness for about two thirds its length and slightly
tapered off in both width and thickness towards the point for the rest
of its length. They are double cut on their wide working faces, but are
single cut on both their narrow edges.
FLAT ENDED DRILL – by means of which a hole previously drilled to the
correct depth with a twist drill may be squared out to a flat bottom,
the small “pip” is necessary to ensure that the drill runs concentrically.
FLUTED CHUCKING REAMER – A machine reamer which has straight
or helical flutes to provide cutting edges over the entire length of the
flutes. Intended for removing a small amount of metal and for finishing
a hole accurately and smoothly.
FLY CUTTER – A single point tool for use on milling machines.
FOLLOWON TOOL – Multistage press tool incorporating such operations
as blanking, piercing, marking and bending and used in either in a
hand or single action power press.
FORMING TOOL – A cutting tool used for forming regular or irregular
shapes. The cutting tool is ground to the shape desired and reproduces
this shape on the workpiece.
FORM MILL – Milling cutter used for a specific form or shape.
FULLER – Tool used by the smith for making rivetted joints or shaped
work on the anvil, or working under the power hammer.
GATE KNIFE – Moulder’s tool used for cutting away sand to form the gate
passage through which metal must run from the main supply to the
mould cavity.
GEAR CUTTERS – Accurately formed cutting tools of hardened steel having
shaped teeth that cut the spaces between the teeth of a gear to the precise
shape and size required.
GRINDING WHEEL – Abrasive wheels in which the abrasive material is

held together by a bonding material. The elements that make up the
wheel are (1) abrasive, (2) grain size, (3) bond, (4) grade and (5) structure.
There are nine standard shapes and many sizes and grades for grinding
practically all kinds of materials.
HACKSAW – Tool employed in cutting bars, rods, tubes etc., of small size,
it consists essentially of a frame, a handle and a blade.
HALF ROUND FILE – File which has a section like a segment of a circle
(less than a semicircle).
HAMMER (pneumatic) – Hammer held and applied to the work by hand,
but actuated by compressed air.
HAMMER (sledge) – Tool with a steel head and a wooden handle, a larger
type of hammer which may have the head weighing from, say 2 to 7 kg
with the handle varying from, say 60 to 90cm in length.
HAND CHASERS – are made in pairs one for internal work, and the other
for external work. These are used only for small threads on brass, or for
rounding off the tops and bottoms of threads previously formed by
the vee tool in the screw cutting lathe.
HAND FILE – Commonly used file parallel in width from the tang to the
tip, but slightly thinned off in thickness for about one third of its
length towards the point.
HAND HAMMER – Type of hammer employed by fitters, machinists and
so on, the head weighing from 12 to 24 oz.
HAND TAP – A hardened and tempered steel tool for cutting internal threads.
It has a thread cut on it, and is fluted to provide cutting edges. A square
at the shank end makes it possible to attach a wrench for turning by
hand.
HAND TOOL – A general term that applies to wide variety of small tools
used by hand instead of being power driven, as layout tools, wrenches
and hammers.
HOLLOW MILL – Type of milling cutter in which the work passes through
the center of the cutter.
HOB – Fluted rotary cutter used to produce spur, helical, and worm gears, a
worm shaped cutting tool having a number of flutes or gashes running
across the threads so that a series of cutting edges is formed.
INDENTER – Tool used to form an indentation i.e., a small recess in the

surface of an article.
INSERTED TIP TOOL – Lathe tool with a specially hard tip inserted in a
certain steel holder.
INSERTED TOOTH CUTTER – Milling cutter with separate teeth fitted
into a body or hob.
INTER LOCKING CUTTERS – Milling cutters consisting of two sections.
Mating sections are similar to half side cutters or staggered tooth side
cutters with uniform or alternate helical teeth so designed that the
paths of teeth overlap when in proper assembly.
KEYWAY MILL – Cutter for milling of keyways in shafts, made in standard
1
widths from 1/6 to 3/8 inch and diameters from 1/2 to 1 inch.
2
KNIFE FILE – File in transverse section tapers symmetrically from one edge
to the other, like a wedge or a knife, used for filing in narrow spaces and
cleaning sharp corners.
KNURLING TOOL – Tool to cut a knurl or diamond shaped impression
on the surface of a component.
LAP – A tool for finishing internal and external surfaces of the workpiece by
charging the lap with a fine abrasive. Always made from metals which
are softer than the metal being lapped.
LAPPING STONE – Stone used for lapping operations, especially on tools
and cutters of high speed steel and tungsten carbide.
LEAD HAMMER – A soft hammer made of lead for tapping, seating and
adjusting work pieces to prevent damaging the finished surface.
LEFT HAND CUTTER – In lathe work, a cutting tool that cuts when fed
from left to right or towards the tailstock. For milling cutters, when
viewed from the spindle or shank end, the cutter would turn counter-
clockwise.
LEFT HAND SCREW – One that screws into the mating part or advances
when turned to the left or counterclockwise.
LOADED WHEEL – A grinding wheel that has become dull or filled up
from the abrasive particles of the material being ground.
MACHINE TAPS – Taps designed for continuous rather than intermittent
cutting and which have less land, more chip space, spiral or straight
flutes, and longer shanks on some types.
METAL BAND SAW – A power driven precision saw having an endless

blade which runs over two wheels mounted one above the other and
used to cut metal.
METAL SLITTING SAW – A thin milling cutter for slotting or cutting off
stock in a milling machine.
MILLING CUTTER – Rotary cutter having teeth and spaces on the
circumference and side or end faces of steel discs, used on milling
machines.
NAIL PUNCH – Punch used by wood workers to drive the head of a nail a
little below a surface.
NECKING TOOL – Tool designed and used to reduce the diameter of a
component and thus form a neck.
NEEDLE FILE – Small, light files usually restricted in length to 3 to 4 inch,
made with a variety of cross-sectional shapes.
NUMBER SIZE DRILLS – A system of drill sizes for small drills in which
the diameters are designated by numbers from No 1 the largest, to No
80 the smallest.
OIL STONE – Stone employed for sharpening edged tools.
PARALLEL ROUND FILE – Single cut file of circular cross-section parallel
throughout its length, usually known as a blunt round or gulleting file.
PARALLEL SQUARE FILE – Type of file of square section parallel
throughout its length, usually known as a square blunt file.
PIERCING SAW – resembling a wood-work fret saw is used for cutting
internal holes, slots and shapes, its lower jaw is adjustable for blades of
varying lengths.
PIN PUNCH – Type of punch, sometimes called a drive pin punch, employed
in removing dowel pins, cotter pins, rivets and similar light objects
used as temporary fastenings, also for punching small holes in sheet
metal.
PLAIN MILLING CUTTER – A milling cutter that has cutting teeth on
the circumference surface only.
PLANER TOOL – Tool used in a planing machine made of different sizes,
shapes and materials.
PNEUMATIC TOOL – Design of hand tool operated by air pressure.
PUNCH (hand) – Tool used for producing a rough hole.

PULLEY TAP – A thread cutting tap having a very long shank for tapping
set screw holes in pulleys.
RADIUS CUTTER – A side or end milling cutter which has the edges of
the teeth ground to specified radius so that it will reproduce the radius
on the workpiece.
RAMMER – Tool used by foundry workers for consolidating sand.
RATCHET DRILL – Short type of drill for use in a ratchet brace.
REAMER – Multiedged cutting tool having cutting edges arranged down
the length of the tool, the teeth (and the flutes) being either straight
and parallel to the axis or alternatively helical with a lead opposite to
the direction of rotation.
RECESSING TOOL – Type of tool employed to cut recesses in bored holes.
RIFFLER – File with a curved working surface specially made for filing
concave surfaces, such as the insides of oddly shaped holes in castings.
RIGBY HAMMER – Steam hammer used for a wide range of forging work.
RIGHT CUT TOOL – A single point lathe tool, which when used in a lathe,
the cutting edge is on the left side and cuts when fed from right to left.
RIGHT HAND CUTTER – A term used to describe both rotation and
helix of milling cutters. A cutter that rotates clockwise when viewed
from the spindle end is said to have right hand rotation. A cutter has
a right hand helix when the flutes slant downward to the right when
viewed from the front or twist clockwise when viewed from the end.
RIVET PUNCH – Tool for piercing holes for rivets, few have a spiral cutting edge.
RIVET SET – Tool used to shape the head of a rivet, and sometimes known
as cup tool and snap.
ROLLER, KNURLING – Grooved roller for the purpose of producing a
knurled or roughened surface on the outside of the work.
ROSE CHUCKING REAMER – Type of reamer with straight flutes to
enlarge deep holes or holes of large diameter, in machined parts.
ROSE REAMER – A machine reamer designed so that all the cutting is done
on the bevelled ends of the teeth instead of on the sides, sometimes also
called ROSE SHELL REAMER.
ROUGH FILE – Type of file having coarsely cut teeth, approximately 20

teeth per inch.
ROUGHING TOOL – Lathe tool designed to take a heavy cut for
preliminary roughing cut.
ROUND FILE – Type of file of circular section throughout its length, made
in two forms, taper (or slim) and parallel (blunt) .
ROUND NOSE CHISEL – Hand cutting tool used for incising grooves in
bearings and bushes, roughing out filleted corners and so on.
ROUND NOSE TOOL – A single point cutting tool having a round nose
and with or without side rake angles. With no side rake it may be used
to cut either right or left hand.
SAFE EDGE FILE – File with one edge left uncut and it is very useful when
working against a shoulder.
SCRAPER – Tool used to reduce the high spots on a surface which has
previously been smoothed as far as possible by machining or filing.
Scraping is hand operation.
SAW SHARPENING FILE – Type of file used for sharpening saw teeth, its
shape being dependent on the shape of the teeth (mill file, cross cut
saw file, taper saw file, double ended taper saw file).
SCREW PLATE – A set consisting of the more commonly used taps and
dies, a tap wrench, and a die stock, cased in a wooden box.
SCREW SLOTTING SAWS – A series of thin saws of various widths,
generally used in an automatic screw machine but sometimes in a
milling machine, to cut the slots in the heads of screws.
SCREW TAP – Tool used in producing a screw thread in a hole i.e., an
internal thread.
SCRIBER – Metal tool, shaped something like a thin pencil, having a sharply
pointed end for marking lines on metal surfaces so as to locate the
positions of holes, angles, machining boundaries.
SCRIBING BLOCK – Tool comprising a heavy base, a rigid vertical spindle
and a sleeve device capable of travelling up and down the spindle and
holding a scriber, used primarily on surface plates for the purpose of
scribing lines parallel to a level surface or to another line.
SECOND CUT FILE – Type of file having a grade of cut between a bastard
file and a smooth file.
SET – The bend to one side of the teeth of a saw. Also, any deformation of
metal or other material stressed beyond its elastic limit.
SET FILE – Type of file bent or set to a special shape to make possible the
filing of some part of a workpiece otherwise inaccessible.
SHANK – The non-cutting end of a tool which fits into the holding device
for driving, as the taper shank on a drill.
SHAPING TOOL – Cutting tool used in a shaping machine, and is designed
to withstand a certain amount of shock, not only when starting, but
also when they are forced across the surface of the metal.
SHEARS (hand) – Scissors like cutting tool used for hand cutting sheet
metal to the required shapes.
1
SHELL END MILL – Large type of end mill ranging from 1 to 3 inch
4
diameter. The body of the cutter is slightly less in length than its diameter,
and is made with a hole through the centre to fit a standard arbor.
SHELL REAMER – Type of reamer with a central hole which can be mounted
on a suitable arbor. The term shell is used to differentiate this type of
reamer from the solid reamer.
SINGLE CUT FILE – A file that has single rows of parallel teeth arranged at
an angle across the face.
SINGLE POINT CUTTER – Boring cutter with one point only for use in
a boring bar.
SIDE AND FACE MILL – Milling cutter with teeth on the sides and
circumference.
SIDE FACE TOOL – Knife edged tool for side turning or facing.
SIDE TOOL – Knife tool used for ordinary turning in a lathe.
SLABBING CUTTER – A wide face milling cutter designed for heavy
roughing cuts.
SLIDE BEVEL – Angles between adjacent surfaces of an object, which are
not 90 degree are tested with the slide bevel.
SLITTING SAW – Circular saw for use on milling machines to make slitting
or cutting through metal, or the cutting of deep narrow slots.
SLOTTING DRILL – Short, straight flute drill made without a point. It is
more of a milling cutter than a drill.
SMOOTH FILE – Type of file having a grade of cut between a second cut
and a dead smooth. The number of teeth per inch varies considerably
for different makes, sizes and shapes, but a smooth file 12" long has
about 50 to 60 teeth/inch.
SOFT HAMMER – A hammer, the head of which is made of copper, lead,
raw hide or plastic to avoid any damage to the finished surfaces of
work-pieces or machine parts.
SOLDERING IRON – Tool used during a soldering operation to heat the
solder and the parts to be joined.
SPACING DEVICE (for centre punch) – Simple device which can be fitted
to an automatic centre punch to enable light punch marks or dots to
be spaced out at regular distances along a scribed line.
SPANNER – Lever tool, also called a wrench, employed for tightening and
loosening nuts, bolts, screws etc.
SPANNER WRENCH – A type of wrench having a hook or equipped with
pins for tightening or loosening threaded circular collars which have
either slots or holes to receive the hook or pins on the wrench.
SPIRAL MILL – Milling cutter with the cutting teeth in the form of a spiral
or helix round its circumference.
SPOT FACING TOOL – is similar to the counterbore and is used primarily
for producing a shallow, annular, finished surface to mate with a locking
washer or the head of a bolt or nut.
SQUARE – The name of tools of various designs and types used for laying
out, inspecting, and testing the squareness of workpieces. Also, lines
or surfaces which meet at right angles.
SQUARE FILE – Type of file with square section throughout its length,
made in two forms taper (or slim) and parallel (or blunt).
SQUARE NOSE TOOL – A single point end cutting tool usually ground
with the end cutting edge at approximately 90° to the axis of the point.
Used for chamfering or for rough cuts on flat surfaces where sharp
corners are necessary. Also, used for finishing cuts on cast iron.
STAGGER TOOTH CUTTERS – Side milling cutters in which the teeth
having alternating helix and the drag ends are eliminated to provide
more chip clearance.
STOCK AND DIE – Tool used for cutting external threads on cylindrical
bars etc. The stock is the name given to the portion of the tool (hand
holder) into which the dies are placed and which enables the dies to be
rotated without undue effort. The assembled unit is called die and stock.
STRADDLE MILL – Term used when two or more milling cutters are
fitted on the arbor with spacing collars between them.
STRAIGHT REAMER – is a cutting tool used to finish or semifinish the
surface of a cylindrical hole.
STRAIGHT SHANK DRILL – Twist drill having a shank that is straight
rather than tapered and held in a self centering drill chuck for driving.
SURFACE PLATE – Metal plate with an optically flat surface which is used
as a plane of reference.
SWAGE BLOCK – Tool, made either in cast iron or steel and weighing
roughly 75 kgs, used for shaping and finishing of forgings of a variety
of cross sections.
SWAN NECK TOOL – Cranked tool for finishing slender work in a lathe.
SWISS FILE – Class of fine file used on light accurate work.
TANG – Two opposite flats milled at the end of taper shanks which enter a
slot in the spindle to prevent slipping and provide a means of removing
the shank from the spindle. Also the name of the part of a file that fits
into the handle.
TAP – A hardened and tempered steel tool for cutting internal threads which
has flutes lengthwise to provide cutting edges for the threads and a
square at the end of the shank for turning the tap with a wrench.
TAP DRILL – A twist drill, the size of which will produce a hole that can be
tapped with a specified tap to give a thread of required depth or
percentage of full depth.
TAP EXTRACTOR – A tool or device for removing broken taps from
holes. Prongs extend down into the flutes of the broken portion. By
attaching a wrench to the extractor, the broken part in the hole may
be loosened and backed out.
TAP GROOVING CUTTER – Relieved milling cutter having a contour
specially designed for cutting the grooves or flutes in a tap.
TAPER PIN REAMER – Reamer employed to open out a drilled Ahole so
that a standard taper pin can be fitted.
TAPER TAP – is used to machine an internal taper thread such as a pipe

thread. It is chamfered at its small end for a distance equal to 4 or 5
times the distance between threads.
TAP WRENCH – Tool which grips the square ended shank of a tap and
enables it to be worked through a hole in hand tapping.
TEE SLOT MILL – Milling cutter used for cutting the cross groove of a Tee
slot.
TOOL BIT – Small section of high speed steel, suitably ground, and held in
a tool holder.
TOOL MAKERS FILE – File which in width and thickness is smaller than
an ordinary file generally obtainable in sizes from 2 to 12 inch in
length.
TOOL MAKERS FLAT – Extremely accurate surface plate used by tool
makers.
TRAMMEL – Instrument mainly used for marking out arcs of circles too
large in diameter to permit the use of dividers.
TREPANNING TOOL – A tool holding device designed to hold a cutting
tool bit. This device is rotated in a drilling machine to cut out large
circles or holes from solid metal by cutting a narrow groove around
the metal.
TRIANGULAR FILE – File having a section shaped like an equilateral triangle,
usually known as a three square file.
TRIMMING DIE – Tool used to remove the surplus material from the
edge of an article.
TROWEL – Tool most frequently used by moulders and core makers in the
execution of their work.
TRY SQUARE – Adjacent surfaces of an object, whether they are at right
angles or not is tested with the trysquare.
T SLOT CUTTER – A one piece, T shaped cutter which has a narrow
neck connecting the cutter to the shank, the diameter and width of
the cutter being standard for each number of T slot to suit bolts of
various sizes.
TURNING TOOL – Tool of hardened material, suitably ground, for the
purpose of forming cylindrical or tapered work in a lathe.
TWIST DRILL – Drill with spiral flutes around its circumference. These
flutes leading from the cutting faces, called lips, provide an exit for the
metal that is removed when the hole is being drilled.
TWO LIP END MILL – A type of end milling cutter having two cutting
edges or lips in which the flutes may be straight or helical. Used for
the fast removal of metal when slots or keyways are to be cut on the
milling machine.
UNIVERSAL SQUARE – Tool used to find the centre of a circle without
the use of other marking out instruments.
VEE BLOCK AND CLAMP – are used for holding circular bars for centering,
drilling etc.
VIXEN FILE – A flat file with curved teeth which is largely used for filing
soft metals.
WARDING FILE – Small file, usually about four to six inches long, having
a rectangular section, used by locksmiths when filing keys to fit the
wards of a lock or for filing the actual wards.
WASHER CUTTER – Tool designed to cut washers, or round discs, with or
without holes in their centers, from sheet metal.
WHEEL (grinding) – Power driven wheel consisting of abrasive particles,
held together by artificial or natural, mineral, metal or organic bonds.
WHEEL DRESSER – A tool or device used for dressing the face of grinding
wheels.
WIRECUTTER – Tool used to cut wire and small diameter rod.
WOODRUFF KEYWAY MILL – Milling cutter for cutting standard
woodruff keyways.
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CHAPTER
8
INSTRUMENTS AND GAUGES
ACME THREAD GAUGE – A gauge used for checking and testing the 29°
angle and the width at the end of a thread cutting tool while grinding it.
It is also used for setting the tool square with the axis of the workpiece.
ANGLE PLATES – Some work has to be set at a particular angle to the
surface of the table, and this is often effected by bolting it to an
adjustable angle plate.
ARDOMETER – A type of total radiation pyrometer.
BORING BAR MICROMETER – On boring operations, it is often
necessary to adjust the cutter setting by a few thousandths of an inch.
With this, it is possible to determine exactly the depth of cut taken.
CALIPER – Instrument used for measuring distances between or over
surfaces, or for comparing dimensions of workpiece with such standards
as plug gauges, graduated rules etc.
CENTRE SQUARE – is intended for marking the centres of round or square
stock.
CLINOMETER – Instrument used for measuring angles relative to the
horizontal plane.
DEPTH GAUGE – Gauge used for the purpose of measuring the distance
between two surfaces, to find or check the depth of a counterbored
hole, a recess etc.
DIAL GAUGE – Instrument indicating the movement of a projecting
plunger by the movement of a hand or pointer over a graduated dial.
DIAL SHEET GAUGE – Gauge fitted with a dial or clock for measuring or
comparing the thickness of sheet metal plates.
DIVIDERS – These are essentially scribers for marking arcs, and circles,
hence their points are hard and sharp. They are used for dividing distances
into a number of equal parts. Also used for transferring dimensions
from a rule to the work.
DRILL GAUGE – Tool for measuring the size of drills.
DRILL GRINDING GAUGE – A tool for checking the angle and length
of the cutting lips on a twist drill while grinding it. Also it may be
called a drill point gauge or a drill angle gauge.
ENGINEERS TAPERS – are intended for measuring hole sizes, slot widths,
caliper settings and so on.
FEELER GAUGES – Consist of a number of thin metal blades, each of a
different thickness and in the desired number of dimensional steps.
They are used for checking clearances.
FIRTHS HARDOMETER – Instrument for measuring the hardness of
materials, particularly metals.
GAUGE – A tool or instrument for checking or measuring the sizes of
metal parts to determine whether the dimensions are within the
specified limits.
GAUGE BLOCKS – are used mostly for reference in setting gauges and for
accurate measurement in tool, gauge, and die manufacture.
HEIGHT GAUGE – Marking out or measuring tool designed on the lines
of a scribing block, but capable of more accurate duty.
HERMOPHRODITE CALIPER – A caliper having one leg similar to that
of an inside caliper, while the other leg is pointed like a divider leg.
HOOK RULE – A steel rule with a projecting piece or hook at one end at
right angles to the edge of the rule.
INDICATING INSTRUMENTS – The instruments that provide visual
observation of readings, such as pressure gauges, draft gauges, fuel oil
meters and thermometers for fuel, feed water and flue gas temperatures
etc.
INDICATOR – A sensitive instrument which shows slight variations when
testing the trueness, or alignment of a workpiece, fixture or machine
part such as a milling vice. Dial indicators may be graduated to read
small linear variations.
Instruments and Gauges 111
INSIDE VERNIER CALIPER – is intended mainly for checking internal

dimensions, such as the diameter of bores, and so on. Vernier protractor
is used for measuring angles accurately.
JO BLOCKS – These refer to Johansson precision gauge blocks.
KNIFE EDGE VERNIER CALIPER – has jaws which are reduced to a very
narrow edge. These are useful for measuring in restricted places or on
curved surfaces.
LEVEL, HYDROSTATIC – U tube device employed during the levelling
and setting of work too long for the use of a spirit level.
LEVEL, SPIRIT – Instrument consisting essentially of a small sealed glass
tube containing spirit (alcohol or ether) so mounted that the enclosed
bubble of air occupies a central position only when the instrument is
placed horizontally.
LIMIT GAUGE – A gauge that represents a limiting (maximum and
minimum) size within which the work will be acceptable.
MICROMETER – A precision, screw adjusted measuring instrument with
which dimensions can be read in thousandths and ten thousandths of
an inch.
MICROMETER COLLAR – A dial on the screw of a machine to indicate
the extent of the movement of the screw or parts attached to the screw
and usually graduated to read thousandths of an inch.
MICROMETER DEPTH GAUGE – The ordinary depth gauge has been
elaborated by the addition of a micrometer head.
MINNIMETER – Delicate form of indicator showing the movement of a
projecting plunger usually placed at one end.
ODD LEG – Caliper having one leg bent inwards at its ends, like the two
legs on a pair of inside calipers, the other leg being pointed or having
a separate hardened point attached to it.
OPTICAL FLAT – Plate generally made of glass or quartz and used as a
standard of reference as a flat surface.
OPTICAL PROTRACTOR – Angle measuring instrument fitted with a
scale read by an optical magnifying device.
PARALLEL BLOCK – Steel or cast iron block used when setting up work
for machining, marking out or measuring.
PIN GAUGES – End measuring pins for determining bore diameters.

PLUG GAUGE – A gauge on which the outside measuring surfaces are
designed to test the specified dimensions of holes. May be straight or
tapered, plain or threaded, and of any cross-sectional shape.
PLUMB BOB – Weight hung on the end of a cord so that when the latter is
supported at its top end the cord will hang vertical.
PNEUMATIC MICROMETER – An instrument designed to measure,
among other things, the errors in the size, shape and alignment of bores,
with compressed air.
PROTRACTOR – Instrument graduated so as to enable the measurement
of angles to be made in degrees.
PYROMETER – Specified type of thermometer used to measure high
temperatures in the production and heat treatment of metals and alloys.
RADIUS GAUGE – Tool used for checking the radius of small fillets or
rounded corners.
RECORDING INSTRUMENTS – Instruments which provide a permanent
record of readings such as steam pressure, steam flow, air flow, flue gas
temperature, feed water temperature, fuel flow and fuel temperature.
RING GAUGE – A gauge in which the inside measuring surfaces are circular
in form. A ring gauge may be cylindrical or conical, plain or threaded.
SCLEROSCOPE – Instrument for measuring hardness.
SCREW GAUGE – Type of gauge for checking the accuracy of a screw thread.
SCREW PITCH GAUGE – A small tool with a number of blades, each having
the same number of notches per inch as the thread it represents. It is used to
find the pitch and number of threads per inch on a screw, tap or die.
SCREW THREAD MICROMETER – Type of micrometer with measuring
points specially shaped to enable the measurement of pitch diameter
and thickness of thread.
SCRIBER – Used for making lines on the work when marking off.
SINE BAR – Tool used for the accurate setting out of angles by arranging to
convert angular measurements to linear ones.
SLIP GAUGE – Form of gauge made of hardened steel with two parallel
faces worked to high precision and at a known distance apart.
Instruments and Gauges 113
SNAP GAUGE – A type of fixed gauge, plain or adjustable, arranged with

inside measuring surfaces for checking diameters, lengths, thicknesses
or widths of workpieces.
SPRING CALIPERS – Inside or outside calipers for measuring workpieces
in which the tension against the nut is maintained by a circular spring
at the end.
STEEL RULE – A thin flat measuring tool graduated in either fractional or
decimal part of an inch or cm and made in many styles and lengths.
STRAIGHT EDGE – Strip of metal, usually steel, with one edge straight,
used to determine the flatness of a surface.
SURFACE GAUGE – Tool used for marking out and setting up work in
conjunction with a surface plate, used also for levelling workpieces
when fixing them to the worktables of machine tools e.g., planers,
shapers, millers etc.
TAPER PLUG GAUGE – A solid internal gauge in the form of a frustrum
of a cone having diameter, taper and length suitable for measuring the
dimensions of an internal taper of specified size.
TAPER RING GAUGE – An external gauge, the internal diameter of which
confirms to the frustrum of a cone having diameter, taper and length
suitable for measuring the dimensions of an external taper of specified
size.
TEMPLATE – A flat pattern or guide plate usually made from sheet metal
and used as a gauge or guide when laying out, drilling, forming in a
machine or filing irregular shapes on metal workpieces.
TELESCOPING GAUGES – Adjustable gauges which consists of a handle
attached to a fixed contact within which a plunger contact expands or
telescopes under spring tension when the gauge is inserted into the
hole that is to be measured.
THREAD GAUGE – Tool for checking the form and pitch of screw threads.
TOOL MAKERS MICROSCOPE – Instrument used in accurate inspection
of thread forms, form tools and complex contours.
TORQUE METER – Torsion measuring device fitted to a rotating shaft or
component to measure the torque developed at any given moment
under actual running conditions.
TORSIOGRAPH – Instrument used to measure and record the amplitude

and frequency of torsional vibrations in a rotating shaft or other part.
TRAMMELS – are generally used for laying off and checking dimensions of
several feet, they are generally used in conjunction with a large steel
rule, which may be from 3 to 10 ft long.
TRANSFER CALIPER – A caliper designed to take measurement in recesses
or over a projection. One leg can be separated or opened to remove
the caliper and then returned to the measured size.
TRY SQUARE – Instrument used for setting and checking a line, an edge or
a face which is required to be at right angles to some other plane which
should be regarded as a datum or reference plane.
VACUUM GAUGE – Gauge used to measure the amount of vacuum in any
vessel in which a pressure lower than atmospheric pressure is produced
by evacuation of air, vapour and gas.
VERNIER – Small-scale, for making accurate measurement, carrying a certain
number of graduations equalling in their combined length a different
number of graduations, usually one more or one less, on the main
scale of the instrument to which the vernier is attached.
VERNIER CALIPER – Precision measuring instrument consisting of a beam
or rule having a fixed jaw at one end, and a straight jaw to which is
attached a vernier scale.
WATER GAUGE – A gauge that shows the proper water level which must
be maintained in a boiler to avoid overheating damage.
WIRE GAUGE – Sizes of standard wire and sheet metal are normally expressed
not by a dimension in cm, but by a number or gauge size.
WHITWORTH GAUGE – Type of plug, and caliper gauge introduced by
Joseph Whitworth.
WICKMAN GAUGE – Special form of adjustable snap or horse shoe type
of gap gauge.
CHAPTER
9
CASTING
AERATOR – A device for fluffing (or decreasing the density of) and cooling
the sand by the admixture of air.
AIR GATE – A vertical channel for the removal of gases from the mould;
checking of the filling of the mould cavity with metal and feeding up
the casting with metal during solidification.
AIR HOLE – Hole in a casting caused by air or gas trapped in the metal
during solidification.
AIRLESS BLAST CLEANING – A process whereby the abrasive material is
applied to the object being cleaned by centrifugal force generated by a
rotating vane type wheel.
ANTIPIPING (material) – Usually refers to an insulating material placed
on the top of a sprue or riser that keeps the metal in liquid or semiliquid
form for a long period of time and minimizes the formation of the
usual conical pipe or shrink in the top of a sprue or riser.
ARBOR – A metal barrel, frame, or plate to support or carry part of a mould
or core.
ATMOSPHERIC RISER – Blind riser which employs atmospheric pressure
to aid feeding.
BACK DRAFT – Taper or draft which prevents removal of pattern from the
mould.
BACKING SAND – Sand between the facing sand and the flask.
BAKED CORE – The core which has been subjected to heating or baking
until it is thoroughly dry, as opposed to green sand core which is used
in the moist state.
BASIN – A cavity on top of the cope into which molten metal is poured
before it enters the sprue.
BEDDED IN MOULD – is the mould, the bottom half of which is made
in the sand in the floor of the foundry. It may be covered with a cope,
or cast open, according to the type of work.
BINDER – Material used to hold the grains of sand together in moulds or
cores. May be cereal, oil, clay, resin, pitch etc.
BINDER, PLASTIC (resin) – Synthetic resin material used to hold grains
of sand together in moulds or cores, may be phenol formaldehyde or
urea formaldehyde thermosetting types.
BLACKING – Carbonaceous material for coating mould or core surfaces.
BLACK LEAD – Graphite for facing moulds and cores.
BLAST CLEANING – Removal of sand or oxide scale from castings by the
impinging action of sand, metal shot or grit projected under air, water
or centrifugal pressure.
BLEED – Molten metal oozing out of a casting stripped or removed from
the mould before solidification.
BLENDED SAND – Mixture of sands of different grain sizes, clay content
etc. to produce one, possessing characteristics more suitable for foundry
use.
BLIND RISER – An internal riser which does not reach to the exterior of
the mould.
BLISTER – Defect on the surface of a casting appearing as a shallow blow
with a thin film of metal over it.
BLOWN CASTINGS – Castings in which bubbles, or blowholes, have been
caused through gases, steam etc., generated when the mould is cast,
finding their way into the metal.
BOND CLAY – Any clay suitable for use as a bonding material in the
moulding sand.
BORIC ACID – Inhibitor used in facing sand for magnesium base and
aluminium base alloys high in magnesium to prevent reaction with
moisture in the sand.
BORON TRICHLORIDE – A product used for degasification of aluminium
alloys.
Casting 117
BOSSES – Bosses are often located on a wall of a casting and should be so

designed that a heavy section of metal leads to the riser.
BOT – Clay wedge used in a cupola to stop the hole through which the
metal is run.
BUCKLE – Defect in a casting surface appearing as an indentation resulting
from an expansion scab.
BURN ON – Adhesion of sand to the casting, usually due to the metal
penetrating into the sand.
BURN OUT – Usually refers to the removal of the disposable wax or plastic
pattern in the investment moulding process by heating the mould
gradually to a sufficiently high temperature to consume any
carbonaceous residues.
BUTT RAMMAR – The flat end of the molders rammer.
CALCIUM BORIDE – An alloy of calcium and boron corresponding (when
pure) to the formula CaB6 containing about 61% boron and 39%
calcium, and used in deoxidation and degasification of nonferrous metals
and alloys.
CALCIUM MANGANESE SILICON – An alloy containing 17 to 19%
calcium, 8 to 10% manganese, 55 to 60% silicon and 10 to 14% iron
used as a scavenger for oxides, gases and nonmetallic impurities in steel.
CALCIUM SILICON – An alloy of calcium, silicon and iron containing
28 to 30% calcium, 60-65% silicon and 6% max iron, used as a
deoxidizer and degasifier for steel and cast iron.
CASTING – Metal poured into a mould to form an object. Act of pouring
molten metal into a mould.
CASTING STRAINS – Strains resulting from internal stresses created during
cooling of a casting.
CAVITY, MOULD or DIE – Impression or impressions in a mould or die
that give the casting its shape.
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING – Process of filling moulds by pouring the
metal into a sand or metal mould revolving about either its horizontal
or vertical axis and continue pouring the metal into the mould that is
being revolved before solidification of metal is complete. Molten metal
is moved from the center to the periphery by centrifugal action.
CERAMIC MOULD – Mould in which the refractory and binder are such
that when fired at high temperature, a rigid structure is formed. The
mould can be made in a flask or in the form of a shell.
CEREAL – Substance derived from corn flour, which is added to core and
moulding sands to improve their properties for casting production.
CHALK TEST – Method of crack detection which consists of applying a
penetrating liquid to the excess from the surface which is then coated
with whiting or chalk. After a short time, the penetrant seeps out of the
cracks into the whiting, causing an appreciable difference in whiteness.
CHAMOTTE – Coarsely graded refractory material prepared from calcined
clay and ground firebrick mulled with raw clay, used in steel foundries.
CHAPLET – A metallic insert or support to hold the core in position in the
mould.
CHEEK – Intermediate sections of a flask inserted between cope and drag.
CHILL – A metal object placed on the outside or inside a mould cavity to
induce more rapid cooling at that point and thereby produce hard zone
i.e., hard, unmachinable surface.
CHILL TEST – Method of determining the suitability of a gray iron for
specific castings through its chilling tendency, as measured from the tip
of a wedge shaped test bar.
CHILLED IRON – Cast iron poured against a chill to produce a hard
unmachinable surface.
CHOKE – Restriction in a gating system to control the flow of metal beyond
that point.
CHVORINOV’S RULE – Solidification time is proportional to the square
of the volume of the metal and inversely proportional to the square of
the surface area.
CLEANING – Process of removing sand, surface blemishes etc. from the
exterior and interior surfaces of a casting. Includes degating, tumbling,
or abrasive blasting, grinding off gate stubs.
COD – A sand projection left behind in the mould by some patterns. Strictly
speaking it is a core.
COLD SHUT – Where two streams of metal do not unite thoroughly in a
casting.
Casting 119
COMBINATION DIE – A die casting die having two or more cavities of

dissimilar parts.
CONTRACTION – Act or process of a casting becoming smaller in volume
and/or dimensions during the solidification of the metal or alloy which
composes the casting.
COPE – The upper or top most section of a flask, mould or pattern.
COPE (false) – A temporary cope which is used only to establish the parting
line.
CORE – Separable part of the mould, usually made of sand and generally
baked, to create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
Also used to designate the interior portion of an iron base alloy which
after case hardening is substantially softer than the surface layer or case.
CORE BINDER – Any material used to hold the grains of core sand together.
CORE BOX – Box with an opening in which the core is formed.
CORE PRINT – An extension of the pattern for locating the core or an
extension of the mould cavity for locating the core.
CORE (ram up) – Core attached to the pattern and rammed up in the
mould, where it remains when the pattern is withdrawn.
CORE SHIFT – Defect resulting from movement of the core from its proper
position in the mould cavity.
CORE VENTS – A wax product, round or oval in form, used to form the
vent passage in the core.
CRUSH – Casting defect appearing as an indentation in the surface due to
displacement of sand in the mould, usually at the joint surfaces.
CUTS – Defects in castings resulting from erosion of the sand by the molten
metal pouring over the mould or core surface.
DEGASSIFIER – A material employed for removing gases from metals and
alloys.
DEOXIDIZER – A material used to remove oxygen or oxides from metals
and alloys.
DESULPHURIZER – A material used to remove sulphur from molten
metals and alloys.
DIE CASTING – Pouring molten metal under pressure into metal moulds.
DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION – It refers to the solidification which

proceeds along a cast member in the direction of the hotter metal.
DIRT – Any extraneous material entering a mould cavity and usually forming
a blemish on the casting surface.
DRAFT – Taper allowed on the vertical faces of a pattern to permit removal
of it from the sand mould without excessive rapping or tearing of the
mould walls.
DRAG – The lower or bottom section of a mould or pattern.
DRY SAND MOULD – A mould made of prepared moulding sand dried
thoroughly before being filled with metal.
EROSION SCAB – Casting defect occurring where the metal has been
agitated, boiled, or has partially eroded away the sand, leaving a solid
mass of sand and metal at that particular spot.
EXPENDABLE PATTERN – In investment moulding, the wax or plastic
pattern that is left in the mould and later melted and burned out.
EXPANSION SCABS – Rough thin layers of metal partially separated from
the body of the casting by a thin layer of sand and held in place by a
thin vein of metal.
EXTERNAL CHILLS – Various materials of high heat capacity such as
metals, graphite etc. forming parts of walls of the mould cavity to
promote rapid heat extraction from molten metal.
EXTERNAL PRESSURE CASTINGS – In this process, highly fluid metal
is forced under considerable external pressure into metal moulds, the
pressure being maintained until solidification is complete.
FACING SAND – Specially prepared sand in the mould adjacent to the
pattern to produce a smooth casting surface.
FALSE CHEEK – A cheek used in making a three part mould in a two part
mould.
FALSE ODDSIDE – Permanent oddside made of plaster or other material.
FEED HEAD – A reservoir of molten metal provided to compensate for
contraction of metal as it solidifies, by the feeding down of liquid metal
to prevent voids. Also called a RISER.
FILLETS – Properly positioned fillets materially increase the strength and
soundness of the castings. They reduce shrinkage cracks and erosion of
sand at sharp intersections.
Casting 121
FIN – A thin piece of metal projecting from a casting at the parting line or at
the junction of the cores or of cores and mould etc.
FLASH – Thin fin or web of metal extending from the casting along the
joint line as a result of poor contact between cope and drag moulds.
FLASK – Container in which a mould is made.
FLOW OFF GATE – Channel cut from the mould to the riser.
FLUORESCENT CRACK DETECTION – Application of fluorescent
liquid to a part, then removing the excess from the surface, which is
then exposed to ultraviolet light. Cracks show up as fluorescent lines.
GAS HOLES – Rounded cavities caused by generation or accumulation of
gas or entrapped air in a casting, holes may be spherical, flattened or
elongated.
GATE – The location where the molten metal enters the casting cavity.
GATED PATTERN – One or more patterns with gating systems attached.
GATING SYSTEM – Combination of channels, cavities and other elements
of a casting mould which are intended ·to feed molten metal into a
mould, fill in the latter, and feed up the casting with metal during
solidification.
GRAVITY DIE CASTING – is one in which the fluid metal is poured by
hand into the metal moulds and around metal cores. The only pressure
applied is that exerted by the head of metal in the pouring gate.
GREEN SAND – Prepared moulding sand in the moist or as mixed
condition.
GREEN SAND MOULD – Mould made and cast in damp sand.
GUIDE PIN – The pin used to locate the cope in the proper place on the
drag.
HORN GATE – A curved gate in the shape of a horn arranged to permit
entry of molten metal at the bottom of the casting cavity.
HOT TEARS – Cracks in castings formed at elevated temperatures, usually
by contraction stresses.
IMPRESSION – Cavity in a die casting die or in a mould.
INCLUSIONS – Particles of slag, sand or other impurities such as oxides,
sulphides, silicates etc., trapped mechanically during solidification or
formed by subsequent reaction of the solid metal.
IN GATE – Channel out from the bottom of the runner into the mould. It
is used in cases where the runner does not enter the mould direct.
INJECTION – Forcing molten metal into a die casting die.
INOCULATION – Process of adding some material to molten metal in the
ladle for the purpose of controlling the structure to an extent not possible
by control of chemical analysis and other normal variables.
INSULATING SLEEVE – Hollow cylinders or sleeves formed of gypsum,
diatomaceous earth, pearlite, vermiculite etc., placed in the mould at
sprue and riser locations to decrease heat loss and rate of solidification
of the metal contained in them.
INTERNAL CHILLS – Solid pieces of metal or alloy, similar in composition
to the casting, placed in the mould prior to filling it with molten metal.
INVESTMENT MOULDING – Moulding using a pattern of wax, plastic
or other material which is invested or surrounded by a moulding medium
in slurry or liquid form. After the moulding medium has solidified,
the pattern is removed by heating the mould, leaving a cavity for
reception of molten metal. Also called LOST WAX PROCESS or
PRECISSION MOULDING.
LADLE – Metal receptacle lined with refractory for transportation of molten
metal.
LOAM – A course, strongly bonded moulding sand used for loam and dry
sand moulding.
LOAM MOULDING – A system of moulding especially for large castings,
wherein the supporting structure is constructed of brick. Coatings of
loam are applied to form the mould face.
MAGNETIC CRACK DETECTION – Method of locating cracks in
materials which can be magnetized, done by applying magnetizing force
and applying finely divided iron powder which then collects in the
region of the crack.
MASTER PATTERN – The pattern from which the working pattern is
cast.
MATCH – A form of wood, plaster of paris, sand, or other material on
which an irregular pattern is laid or supported while the drag is being
rammed.
Casting 123
MATCH PLATE – A metal or other plate on which patterns, split along the
parting line, are mounted back to back with the gating system to form
an integral piece.
METAL PENETRATION – Defect in the casting surface which appears as
if the metal has filled the voids between the sand grains without
displacing them.
MOULD CAVITY – Impression left in the sand mould by the pattern. Also
called MOULD.
MOULD CLAMPS – Devices used to lock or hold cope and drag together.
MOULD HARDENER – In sand moulds in which sodium silicate is the
binder, injection of CO2 causes a chemical reaction which results in a
rigid structure.
MOULD WASH – Usually an aqueous emulsion containing various organic
or inorganic compounds or both, which is used to coat the face of a
mould cavity. Materials include graphite, silica flour etc.
MOULDING SAND – Mixture of sand and clay suitable for mould making.
MOULD WEIGHTS – Weights placed on top of moulds to offset internal
and ferrostatic pressure.
MOULDABILITY – The ability of the sand mixture to fill in perfectly the
cavity of a flask with a pattern or a corebox.
MULTIPLE MOULD – Composite mould made up of stacked sections.
Each section incorporates a complete gate for casting. All castings are
poured from a central downgate.
ODDSIDE – Support used for supporting a pattern whilst the drag is being
rammed up.
OPEN SAND CASTING – A casting poured in a mould which has no cope
or other covering.
PARTING COMPOUND – Material dusted or sprayed on a pattern or
mould to prevent adherence of sand.
PATTERN – Model of wood, metal, plaster or other material used in making
a mould.
PATTERN ALLOWANCES – The dimensions on the pattern differ from
those on the drawing to allow for metal shrinkage, distortion, core shift,
draft and machine finish. Such allowances are made by the pattern-maker.
PEEN – Small end of a moulders rammer.

PERMANENT MOULD – A long life mould into which metal is poured
by gravity.
PILOT CASTING – Usually the first casting made from a production pattern
and examined for dimensional accuracy, quality and other features before
the pattern is placed on the line.
PIT MOULD – Mould in which the lower portions are made in a suitable
pit or excavation in a foundry floor.
PLASTER MOULDING – Gypsum or plaster of paris is mixed with fibrous
talc, with or without sand, and with water to form a slurry, that is
poured around a pattern. In a short period of time, the mass sets or
hardens sufficiently to permit removal of the pattern. The mould so
formed is baked at elevated temperature to remove, all moisture prior
to use.
PLASTICITY – The ability of the sand mixture to acquire the outlines of a
pattern or corebox under the action of external forces and retain the
shape acquired without destruction.
PLASTIC PATTERN – Pattern made from any of the several thermosetting
type synthetic resins such as phenol formaldehyde, epoxy etc. Small
patterns may be cast solid, but large ones are usually produced by
laminating with glass cloth.
POURED SHORT – Casting which lacks completeness due to the cavity
not being filled with molten metal.
POURING CUP – Part of the mould that receives the molten metal from
the pouring ladle and transfers it further into the cavity of the mould.
PRINT – Wooden projection put on to a pattern to provide supports for the
cores in a mould.
PROGRESSIVE SOLIDIFICATION – is the freezing of the metal from
the mould metal inferface toward the center of the cavity.
PUSHUP – An indentation in the casting surface due to displacement
(expansion) of the sand in the mould.
RAMMER – Tool used in a foundry for ramming the sand.
RAPPING – Tapping of the pattern with a mallet in order to loosen it as it
is drawn from the mould.
Casting 125
RAPPING BAR – A pointed bar (or rod) made of steel or other metal,
which is inserted vertically into a hole in a pattern or driven into it,
then struck with a hammer on alternate sides to cause vibration and
loosening of the pattern from the sand.
RELIEF SPRUE – The second sprue at opposite end of the runner to relieve
pressure created during pouring operation.
RIBS – are used primarily as stiffeners and reinforcing members. If properly
designed and located in difficult castings, serve to check the possibility
of hot tears or cracks during solidification.
RISER – Reservoir of molten metal attached to the casting to compensate
for the internal contraction of the casting during solidification.
RUNNER – The portion of the gate assembly which connects the downgate
or sprue with the casting.
SAG – Defect which appears as an increase or decrease in metal section due to
sinking of sand in the cope (decreased section) or sagging in the core
(increased section).
SAND BLAST – Sand driven by a blast of compressed air (or steam). Used
to clean castings, to cut, polish or decorate glass and other hard substances.
SCAB – A blemish on the casting caused by eruption of gas from the mould
face.
SEAM – Surface defect on a casting similar to a cold shut, but not as severe.
SEMICENTRIFUGAL CASTING – is one in which the mould, usually a
stacking of several flat sand or die moulds, is rotated about a vertical
axis.
SHOT – Abrasive blast cleaning material.
SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCES – are provided to take care of the contraction
in dimensions of the solidified casting as it cools from its freezing
temperature to room temperature.
SHRINK HOLE – A hole or cavity in a casting resulting from contraction
and insufficient feed metal, and formed during the period the metal
changed from the liquid to the solid state.
SHELL MOULDING – Process in which clay free silica sand coated with a
thermosetting resin or mixed with the resin is placed on a heated metal
pattern for a short period of time to form a partially hardened shell.
The unaffected sand mixture is removed for further use. The pattern
and the shell are then heated further to harden or polymerize the resin
sand mix, and the shell is removed from the pattern.
SKIMMING GATE – Part of the mould that retains non-metallic inclusions
or impurities and delivers sound metal further into the runners.
SLEEK – Term meaning to make smooth. It is applied to the trowelling of
a sand surface.
SLUSH CASTING – Casting made by pouring an alloy into a metal mould,
allowing it to remain sufficiently long to form a thin solid shell, and
then pouring out the remaining metal.
SNAG – Removal of fins and rough places on a casting by means of grinding.
SNAP FLASK – Moulding box, hinged on one side so that it may be opened
to allow the finished mould to be removed.
SPRIGS – Small pegs of wood or metal used to strengthen weak portions of
a mould or to assist in the mending up of a damaged mould.
SPRUE – The vertical portion of the gating system where the molten metal
first enters the mould.
STACK MOULDING – Moulding method in which the half mould forms
the cope and drag. They are placed on top of the other and moulds
stacked one over the other are poured through a common sprue.
STRICKLE – Piece of wood by means of which surplus sand is removed
from a moulding box or other surface. They may also be used to shape
sand surfaces into any required shape.
SURVIVABILITY – The ability of a moulding mixture to retain its initial
properties for a specified length of time.
TRUE CENTRIFUGAL CASTING – is used for producing thin or thick
walled hollow cylinders with a bore concentric with the outside.
VENT – Channel made in the sand in the vicinity of a mould to allow
steam, gases etc., generated when sand and molten metal come into
contact with one another, to escape.
VENT ROD – A piece of wire or rod to form the vents i.e., holes in the
sand, for the escape of gases.
VENT WAX – Wax in rod shape placed in the core during manufacture. In
the oven the wax is melted out leaving a vent or passage.
Casting 127
WASH – Casting defect resulting from erosion of sand. Also refers coating
materials applied to moulds, cores etc.
WASTER – Faulty casing.
WHIRL GATE – Gating system in which the metal enters a circular reservoir
at a tangent and so whirls around, leaving dirt and slag behind before
passing into the mould cavity.
WHISTLERS – Small openings from isolated mould cavities to allow gases
to escape easily.
YIELDABILITY – The ability of the sand mixture to decrease in volume so
as not to limit the contraction of a solidifying casting.
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CHAPTER
10
WELDING
ARC – A sustained electric discharge, where current flows through the gap
between two electrodes.
ARC CUTTING – Process which melts the metals to cut with the heat of
an arc between an electrode and the base metal.
ARC EYE – A burn on the exterior surface of the operators eye, due to its
exposure to an open arc. Also called FLASH EYE.
ARC GAP – Distance between the tips of two electrodes, normally between
an electrode and the workpiece. Also known as ARC LENGTH.
ARC PLASMA – A gas that has been heated to an at least partially ionized
condition, enabling it to conduct an electric current.
ARC SPOT WELD – Spot welding made by an arc welding process.
ARC WELDING – A group of welding processes which produces coalescence
of metals by heating them with an arc, with or without the application
of pressure, and with or without the use of filler metal.
ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING – An arc welding process which
produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an electric arc
maintained between electrodes in an atmosphere of hydrogen.
Shielding is provided by hydrogen.
AUTOGENOUS WELD – A fusion weld made without the addition of
filler metal.
AUTOMATIC OXYGEN CUTTING – Cutting with an equipment without
constant observation and adjustment of the controls by an operator.
AUTOMATIC WELDING – Welding which permits the operation without
adjustment of controls by an operator.
BACKHAND WELDING – A welding technique in which the welding

torch or gun is directed opposite to the progress of welding.
BACK WELD – A weld deposited at the back of a single groove weld.
BARE ELECTRODE – A filler metal electrode of a single metal or alloy,
produced into a wire, strip or bar form and without any coating or
covering on it.
BARE METAL ARC WELDING – Process which produces coalescence of
metals by heating them with an electric arc between a bare or lightly
coated metal electrode and the work piece.
BASE METAL – The metal to be welded, brazed, soldered or cut.
BLIND JOINT – A joint, no portion of which is visible.
BORAX – is the old standard flux for brazing, exists in two forms—ordinary
borax and amorphous or fused borax.
BRAZING – A group of welding processes that produces coalescence of
materials by heating them to the brazing temperature, using a filler
metal having a liquidus above 450°C and below the solidus of the base
metal.
BUTT JOINT – A joint between two members aligned approximately in
the same plane.
CARBON ARC CUTTING – Cutting of base metals by melting them with the
heat of an arc produced between a carbon electrode and the base metal.
CARBON ELECTRODE – A non-filler metal electrode used in arc welding
or cutting, consisting of a carbon or graphite rod, which may be coated
with copper or other coatings.
CARBON ARC WELDING – A brazing process that produces coalescence
of metals by heating them with an electric arc produced between two
carbon electrodes. The filler material is distributed in the joint by
capillary action.
COLD WELDING – A solid state welding process in which pressure is
applied at room temperature to produce coalescence of metals with
substantial deformation at the weld.
COMPOSITE ELECTRODE – Multicomponent filler metal electrodes in
various physical forms such as standard wires, tubes and covered wire.
Welding 131
CONTINUOUS WELD – A weld that extends continuously from one end

of a joint to the other.
COVERED ELECTRODE – An electrode consisting of a core of a bare
electrode or metal cored electrode to which a covering, sufficient to
provide a slag layer on the weld metal, has been applied.
COVER PLATE (eye protection) – A removable pane of colourless glass,
plastic coated glass or plastic that covers the filter plate and protects it
from weld spatter, pitting or scratching when used in a helmet, hood
or goggles.
CRATER – A depression at the termination of a weld bead.
DECARBURIZING FLAME – A flame which removes carbon from the
molten metal.
DEPOSITION EFFICIENCY (arc welding) – Ratio of the weight of
deposited metal to the net weight of the filler metal consumed, exclusive
of stubs i.e., left out electrode bits.
DEPTH OF FUSION – Distance that fusion extends into the base metal or
previous pass from the surface melted during welding.
DIFFUSION WELDING – A solid state welding process that produces
coalescence of the faying surfaces by the application of pressure at
elevated temperature.
EDGE JOINT – A joint between the edges of two or more parallel or nearly
parallel members.
ELECTROGAS WELDING – Arc welding in which coalescence is effected
by heating the metals with an arc produced between a continuous
filler metal electrode and the work. Shielding is by inert gas.
ELECTRO SLAG WELDING – A welding process producing coalescence
of metals with molten slag that melts the filler metal and the surfaces
of the workpieces. The weld pool is shielded by slag.
EMISSIVE ELECTRODE – A filler metal electrode consisting of a core of
a bare electrode or a composite electrode to which a very light coating
has been applied to produce a stable arc.
EXPLOSION WELDING – A solid state welding process in which
coalescence is effected by high velocity movement of the workpieces,
produced by a controlled detonation.
FACE SHIELD (eye protection) – Device positioned in front of the eyes

and over all or a portion of the face to protect the eyes and face.
FILLET WELD – A weld of approximately triangular cross-section joining
two surfaces approximately at right-angles to each other in a lap joint,
T joint or corner joint.
FILLER METAL – Metal to be added in making a welded, brazed or soldered
joint.
FIRE CRACKER WELDING – Shielded metal arc welding process in which
a length of covered electrode is placed along the joint in contact with
the workpieces. During welding, a stationary electrode is consumed
as the arc travels the length of the electrode.
FISH EYE – A discontinuity found on the fracture surface of a weld in steel.
It consists of a small pore or inclusion surrounded by an approximately
round bright area.
FLOW WELDING – Process which produces coalescence of metals by
heating them with molten filler metal poured over the surfaces to be
welded until the welding temperature is attained and until sufficient
filler metal has been added.
FLUX – Material used in welding to prevent, dissolve or facilitate removal
of oxides and other undesirable surface substances.
FLUX CORED ARC WELDING – Process in which coalescence of metals
is effected by heating them with an arc between a continuous filler
metal (consumable) electrode and the work. Shielding is by the flux
contained within the tubular electrode.
FLUX CORED ELECTRODE – A composite hollow filler metal electrode
containing within it ingredients to provide such functions as shielding
atmosphere, deoxidation, arc stabilization and slag formation.
FOREHAND WELDING – A welding technique in which the welding
torch or gun is directed toward the progress of welding.
FORGE WELDING – Process that produces coalescence of metals by heating
them in air in a forge and by applying pressure or blows sufficient to
cause permanent deformation at the surface.
FUSION – Melting together of filler metal and base metal (substrate) or of
base metal only which results in coalescence.
Welding 133
FUSION WELDING – Arc welding process that uses fusion of the base
metal to make the weld.
FUSION ZONE – Area of base metal melted as determined on the cross-
section of a weld.
GAS METAL ARC CUTTING – Process in which metals are severed by
melting them with the heat of an arc produced between a continuous
filler metal electrode and the workpiece. Shielding is obtained entirely
from an externally supplied gas.
GAS CARBON ARC WELDING – Process which produces coalescence of
metals by heating them with an electric arc between a carbon electrode
and the workpiece. Shielding is effected by a gas or gas mixture.
GAS METAL ARC WELDING – Process that produces coalescence of
metals by heating them with an arc between a continuous filler metal
electrode and the workpiece. Shielding is obtained by external gas
supply.
GAS REGULATOR – A device for controlling the delivery of gas at some
substantially constant pressure.
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC CUTTING – Process in which materials are severed
by melting them with an arc produced by a tungsten electrode and the
workpiece. Shielding is effected by a gas.
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING – Process that produces coalescence
of metals by heating them with an arc produced between a tungsten
(non-consumable) electrode and the workpiece. Shielding is obtained
from a gas.
GAS WELDING – Process in which heat is furnished by a flame resulting
from the combustion of a fuel gas, such as acetylene or hydrogen with
oxygen; oxyacetylene being capable of producing the highest
temperature flame is the most used.
GLOBULAR TRANSFER – Transfer of molten metal in large drops from
a consumable electrode across the arc in arc welding.
GOUGING – The forming of a bevel or groove by material removal.
HAND SHIELD – A protective device, used in arc welding, for shielding
the eyes, face and neck. A hand shield is equipped with a suitable filter
plate and is designed to be held by hand.
HEAT AFFECTED ZONE – The portion of the base metal that has not
been melted, but whose mechanical properties or microstructure have
been altered by the heat of welding, brazing, soldering or cutting.
HELMET (eye protection) – Device designed to be worn on the head to
protect eyes, face and neck from arc radiation, radiated heat, spatter,
or other harmful matter expelled during arc welding.
HOT PRESSURE WELDING – Process that produces coalescence of metals
with heat and application of pressure sufficient to produce macrodeformation
of the base metal. Vacuum or other shielding media is used.
HOTWIRE WELDING – Arc welding process in which a filler metal wire
is resistance heated by current flowing through the wire as it is fed
into the weld pool.
INERT GAS – A gas which does not normally combine chemically with the
base metal or filler metal.
INTERMITTENT WELD – A weld in which the continuity is broken by
recurring unwelded spaces.
JOINT – Junction of members or the edges of members which are to be
joined or have been joined.
JOINT EFFICIENCY – The ratio of the strength of a joint to the strength
of the base metal expressed in per cent.
KERF – Width of the cut produced during a cutting process.
LAP JOINT – A joint formed between two overlapping members in parallel
planes.
LASER BEAM CUTTING – Process that severs materials by melting or
vaporizing them with the heat obtained from a laser beam, with or
without the application of gas jets to augment the removal of material.
LASER BEAM WELDING – Process that produces coalescence of materials
with the heat obtained from the application of a concentrated coherent
light beam impinging upon the joint.
LIGHTLY COATED ELECTRODE – A filler metal electrode consisting
of a metal wire with light coating applied subsequent to the drawing
operation, primarily for stabilizing the arc.
MACHINE OXYGEN CUTTING – Cutting with an equipment that
performs the operation under the constant observation and control of
an oxygen cutting operator.
Welding 135
MACHINE WELDING – Welding with an equipment which performs the

operation under the constant observation and control of a welding
operator.
MANUAL WELDING – Welding performed and controlled completely by
hand.
MELTING POINT – The temperature at which a metal melts.
MELTING RANGE – Temperature range between solidus and liquidus.
MELTING RATE – The weight or length of electrode melted in unit time.
METAL ARC CUTTING – Processes that sever metals by melting them
with the heat of an arc between a metal electrode and the base metal.
METAL BATH BRAZING – is a dip process wherein the filler metal is
obtained from the molten metal bath. This is confined to joining
comparatively small work such as joints in wire.
METAL CORED ELECTRODE – A composite filler metal electrode
consisting of a metal tube or other hollow configuration containing
alloying ingredients.
METAL ELECTRODE – A filler or non-filler metal wire or rod, either bare
or covered, used in an arc welding or cutting.
METAL POWDER CUTTING – An oxygen cutting process that severs
metals through the use of powder such as iron, to facilitate cutting.
NEUTRAL FLAME – An oxyfuel gas flame in which the proportion used is
neither oxidizing nor reducing.
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING – Testing of welds or metal without
causing any damage to the item being tested.
OVER WELDING – Depositing more filler metal than required.
OXYACETYLENE CUTTING – Process that severs metals by the chemical
reaction of oxygen with the base metal at elevated temperatures caused
by combustion of acetylene with oxygen.
OXYACETYLENE WELDING – Process that produces coalescence of metals
by heating them with the flame obtained by combustion of acetylene
with oxygen.
OXY FUEL CUTTING – A group of cutting processes used to sever metals
by means of the chemical reaction of oxygen with the base metal at
elevated temperatures produced by flames obtained from combustion
of fuel gas and oxygen e.g., oxy hydrogen cutting, oxy natural gas cutting,
oxy propane cutting.
OXY FUEL GAS WELDING – A group of welding processes that produces
coalescence by heating materials with an oxyfuel gas flame or flames
with or without the application of pressure and with or without the
use of filler metal e.g., oxy hydrogen welding.
OXYGEN LANCE CUTTING – An oxygen cutting process used to sever
metals with oxygen supplied through a consumable lance. The preheat
to start cutting is obtained by other means.
PLASMA ARC CUTTING – Process that severs metal by melting a localized
area with a constricted arc and removing the molten material with
high velocity jet of hot, ionized gas issuing from the constricted orifice.
PLASMA ARC WELDING – Process that produces coalescence of metals
by heating them with a constricted arc between an electrode and the
workpiece (transferred arc) or the electrode and the constricting nozzle
(non-transferred arc). Shielding is obtained from the hot ionized gas
issuing from the orifice which may be supplemented by an auxiliary
source of shielding gas.
PLUG WELD – A weld made in a circular hole or one member of a joint,
fusing that member to another member.
POROSITY – Cavity type discontinuities formed by gas entrapment during
solidification.
POST HEATING – Application of heat to an assembly after a welding,
brazing, soldering, thermal spraying or thermal cutting.
PRE HEATING – Application of heat to the base metal immediately before
welding, brazing, soldering, thermal spraying and cutting.
PRESSURE GAS WELDING – An oxyfuel gas welding which produces
coalescence simultaneously over the entire area of faying surfaces by
heating them with gas flames obtained from combustion of a fuel gas
with oxygen and by the application of pressure, without the use of
filler metal.
PROJECTION WELDING – is a modification of spot welding in which
the current and pressure are localized at the weld section by the use of
embossed, machined, or coined projections on one or both pieces of
the work.
Welding 137
PROTECTIVE ATMOSPHERE – Gas or vacuum envelope surrounding

the workpieces used to prevent or facilitate removal of oxides and
detriment surface substances.
RANDOM INTERMITTENT WELDS – Intermittent welds on one or
both sides of a joint in which the weld increments are made without
regard to spacing.
PULSED POWER WELDING – An arc welding process variation in which
the power is cyclically programmed to pulse so that effective but short
duration values of a parameter can be utilized. Also called PULSED
VOLTAGE or PULSED CURRENT WELDING e.g., gas metal arc
welding (pulsed arc), gas tungsten arc welding (pulsed arc).
REDUCING ATMOSPHERE – A chemically active protective atmosphere
which at elevated temperature will reduce metal oxides to their metallic
state.
REDUCING FLAME – A gas flame having a reducing effect owing to excess
fuel gas.
RESIDUAL STRESS – Stress present in a member that is free to external
forces or thermal gradients.
RESISTANCE BRAZING – is an electric brazing process wherein the heat
is obtained by passing an electric current through the parts being brazed.
RESISTANCE WELDING – In this, the metal parts to be joined are heated
by their resistance to the flow of an electric current e.g., spot welding,
seam welding.
ROLL WELDING – A solid state welding process that produces coalescence
of metals by heating and by applying pressure with rolls sufficient to
cause deformation at the faying surfaces.
SEAL WELD – Any weld designed primarily to provide a specific degree of
tightness against leakage.
SEAM WELD – A continuous weld between or upon overlapping members,
in which coalescence may start and occur on the faying surfaces, or may
have proceeded from the outer surface of one member.
SEMI AUTOMATIC ARC WELDING – Arc welding with equipment
that controls only the filler metal feed. The advance of the welding is
manually controlled.
SEMI BLIND JOINT – A joint in which one extremity of the joint is not
visible.
SERIES SUBMERGED ARC WELDING – A submerged arc welding process
variation in which electric current is established between two consumable
electrodes which meet just above the surface of the workpieces which
are not part of the electric circuit.
SHIELDED CARBON ARC WELDING – A carbon arc welding process
in which shielding is effected by the combustion of a solid material
fed into the arc or from a blanket of flux on the workpieces or both.
SHIELDED METAL ARC CUTTING/WELDING – Cutting or welding
effected by heating the workpieces with an arc between a covered metal
electrode and the workpiece. Shielding is obtained from decomposition
of the electrode covering,
SHIELDING GAS – Protective gas used to prevent atmospheric
contamination.
SHORT CIRCUITING TRANSFER ARC WELDING – Metal transfer
in which molten metal from a consumable electrode is deposited during
repeated short circuits.
SHRINKAGE VOID – A cavity type discontinuity normally formed by
shrinkage during solidification.
SILVER BRAZING – Brazing process that employs silver alloys. Also called
hard soldering or silver soldering.
SLAG INCLUSION – Non-metallic material entrapped in weld metal or
between weld metal and base metal.
SLOT WELD – A weld made in an elongated hole in one member of a joint
fusing that member to another member. The hole may be open at one end.
SOLDER – A filler metal used in soldering which has a liquidus not exceeding
450°C.
SOLDERING – A group of welding processes that produces coalescence of
materials by heating them to a suitable temperature and by using a
filler metal having a liquidus not exceeding 450°C and below the solidus
of the base metals.
SOLID STATE WELDING – A group of welding processes that produces
coalescence at temperatures essentially below the melting point of the
Welding 139
base metal being joined, without the addition of a brazing filler metal.
Pressure mayor may not be used.
SPATTER – The metal particles expelled during fusion welding, that do not
form a part of the weld.
SPELTER – is common brass, the first material used to make a brazed joint
in ferrous material.
SPOT WELD – Weld made between or upon overlapping members in which
coalescence may start and occur on the faying surfaces or may proceed
from the surface of one member. The weld cross section (plan) is
approximately circular.
SPRAY TRANSFER ARC WELDING – Metal transfer in which molten
metal from a consumable electrode is propelled axially across the arc
in small droplets.
STACK CUTTING – Thermal cutting of stacked metal plates arranged so
that all the plates are severed by a single cut.
STAGGERED INTERMITTENT WELD – An intermittent weld on both
sides of a joint in which the weld increments on one side are alternated
with respect to those on the other side.
STRINGER BEAD – A type of weld bead made without appreciable weaving
motion.
STUD WELDING – A general form for the joining of a metal stud or
similar part to a workpiece. Welding may be effected by arc, resistance,
friction or other suitable process, with or without external gas shielding.
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING – An arc welding process in which the arc
and molten metal are shielded by a blanket of granular, fusible material
on the workpieces.
SURFACING – Application by welding, brazing or thermal spraying of a
layer(s) of material to a surface to obtain desired properties or
dimensions as opposed to making a joint.
TACK WELD – A weld made to hold parts of a weldment in proper
alignment until final welds are made.
THERMIT MIXTURE – A mixture of metal oxide and finely divided
aluminium with the addition of alloying metals as required.
THERMIT WELDING – Welding process that produces coalescence of
metals by heating them with superheated liquid metal from a chemical
reaction between a metal oxide and aluminium, with or without the

application of pressure.
T-JOINT – A joint between two members located approximately at right-
angles to each other in the form of a T.
TORCH BRAZING – A brazing process in which the heat required is
furnished by a fuel gas flame.
TWIN CARBON ARC WELDING – Process that produces coalescence of
metals by heating them with an electric arc between two carbon
electrodes. No shielding is used.
UNDER WELDING – Depositing less filler material than required.
WEAVE BEAD – A type of weld bead made with transverse oscillation.
WELD – A localized coalescence of metals or non-metals produced either by
heating the materials to the welding temperature, with or without the
application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone and with
or without the use of filler material.
WELDING ELECTRODE – A component of the welding circuit through
which current is conducted and which terminates at the arc, molten
conductive slag or base metal.
CHAPTER
11
HEAT AND SURFACE
TREATMENTS
AGING – The process of holding metals at room temperature or at a

predetermined temperature for the purpose of increasing their hardness
or strength by precipitation. Aging is also used to increase dimensional
stability in metals such as castings.
AGE HARDENING – Change in the physical properties, e.g., hardness and
strength, that occurs in certain light metals after heat treatment.
ALLOYING OF METAL – The addition of varying proportions of other
elements to a basic metal in order to produce an alloy having specific
properties.
ANODIC TREATMENT – Formation of a protective layer of oxide on
the surface of aluminium and its alloys by electrolytic action, in order
to resist corrosion.
ANNEALING – A heat treatment in which metals are heated and then cooled
very slowly for the purpose of decreasing hardness. Annealing is used to
improve machinability and to remove stresses from weldments, forgings
and castings. Also used to remove stresses resulting from cold working
and to refine and make uniform the microscopic internal structures of
metals.
ANODIZING – To subject a metal to electrolytic action, as takes place at
the anode of a cell, in order to coat it with a protective or decorative
film, used for nonferrous metals.
AUSTEMPERING – A heat treating process consisting of quenching a ferrous
alloy at a temperature above the transformation range in a medium
such as molten lead, the temperature of the quenching medium is
maintained below that of pearlite and above that of martensite formation

to produce a tough, hard microstructure.
AUSTENITIZING – The process of forming austenite ( a solid solution of
iron and carbon and sometimes other elements ).
BLACK OXIDE COATING – Coating produced by converting the surface
of iron or steel to black iron oxide having a thickness of about 0.0025
mm.
CADMIUM PLATING – Electroplating process for the application of
cadmium to steel and iron parts to prevent rust.
CALORIZING – Rust proofing process for ferrous metals in which an
aluminium film is formed on the surface of the metal. Means of
protecting iron from oxidation at elevated temperatures.
CARBURIZING – A process that introduces carbon into a heated solid
ferrous alloy by having it in contact with a carbonaceous material.
The metal is held at a temperature above the transformation range for
a period of time. This is generally followed by quenching to produce
a hardened case.
CASE HARDENING – Heating a steel in the presence of a solid, liquid or
gas, rich in carbon, in order to enable the surface to be hardened,
while retaining a tough, ductile core.
CHROMIUM PLATING – Electrolytic deposition of chromium on a metal
surface, as a protection against corrosion, to provide improved wearing
properties, or to build up an undersize part.
CHROMIZING – Similar to carburizing. Low carbon steel parts are packed
with a mixture of alumina and chromium powder and heated in a
hydrogen atmosphere, forming a surface layer of chromized material
of 10 to 20% chromium, according to time and temperature of heating.
COLOURING METAL – Production of a coloured surface on a metal or
alloy by the use of heat or chemical action, or by a combination of the
two.
COSLETTIZING – Rust proofing process in which an iron phosphate skin
is formed on the surfaces of ferrous parts, the skin follows even the
microscopic irregularities, yet is remarkably tough and corrosion
resistant.
Heat and Surface Treatments 143
DECARBONIZATION – The loss of carbon from the surface of a ferrous

alloy as a result of heating it in the presence of a medium such as
oxygen that reacts with the carbon.
ELECTROLYTIC POLISHING – Method of polishing metals in which
the work forms the anode of an electrical circuit, and is suspended in
a suitable bath of acid.
ELECTROPLATING – Deposition of a metal on a surface by electrolytic
action.
FLAME HARDENING – Process of hardening by which steel or cast iron
is raised to a high temperature by a gas torch flame and then almost
immediately quenched.
GALVANIZING – Rust prevention treatment which consists of coating the
metal (iron or steel) with a fairly thick film of zinc.
HARDENING – Process of increasing the hardness of a ferrous alloy by
austenitizing and quenching, also the process of increasing the hardness
of some stainless steels and non-ferrous alloys by solution heat
treatment and precipitation.
HARD SURFACING – Arc welding a surface layer usually at strategic spots
on a part, using an electrode having a suitable alloy content for the
purpose. Also known as SURFACING and FACING.
HEAT TREATMENT – Operation or combination of operations, involving
the heating and cooling of a metal or alloy in its solid state with the
object of changing the characteristics of the material.
HOT ROLLING – Surface layers of noble metals are often hot rolled (or
inlayed) on less noble metals.
INDUCTION HARDENING – Heating the surface of cast iron or tool
steel by means of electromagnetic currents followed by a quench.
LACQUERING – A protective coat given to an article to prevent the polished
surface from tarnishing, to prevent oxidation or to improve the general
appearance and make the article more pleasing to the eye, and hence
more saleable.
MARTEMPERING – The process of quenching an austenitized ferrous alloy
to a temperature just above or near the M’s point and maintaining until
the temperature throughout the part is uniform. The alloy is then allowed
to cool slowly in air through the range of martensitic formation.
METALLIZING – Metal spraying process in which the coating metal is
melted (either in a gas flame or in a separate melting pot), then
atomized by an air blast and deposited in atomized form on the surface
to be coated.
NEGRADIZING – Rust proofing process in which a ferrosoferric oxide
surface is produced on steel or iron.
NICKEL PLATING – Deposition of nickel on a metal by electrolytic action
to provide a protective surface or to build up the surface of a worn or
undersize part.
NITRIDING – A process of case hardening in which a special ferrous alloy
is heated in an atmosphere of ammonia or is in contact with any other
nitrogenous material. By this, surface hardening is achieved by the
absorption of nitrogen without quenching.
NORMALIZING – Process applied to iron base alloys, such as steel, to
refine the grain structure and remove the effects of previous processing
for example hot rolling.
ORGANIC FINISHING – Coating a surface with a continuous film of an
organic material for protecting the surface from corrosive influences,
for enhancing the appearance or a combination of both.
PARKERIZING – A coslettizing process in which a patented mixture of
iron and manganese phosphates is used in solution to provide a rust
proof surface on iron and steel parts.
PHOSPHATE COATING – Coating produced by converting the surface
of iron or steel parts to insoluble phosphate, such as iron phosphate
or zinc iron phosphate.
PICKLING – Treatment of objects with an acid solution to remove all oxide,
scale or dirt. Usually done to clean and brighten the surface, although
sometimes used for etching.
POWDER COATING – Surface coating of almost any metal or alloy applied
to another by powder method.
PRECIPITATION HARDENING – A process of hardening an alloy by
heat treatment in which a constituent precipitates from a supersaturated
Heat and Surface Treatments 145
solid solution while at room temperature or at some slightly elevated

temperature.
QUENCHING – Rapid cooling of a metal in a bath of fluid during heat
treatment after it has been heated to a given temperature, thus trapping
the molecules of the metal in the desired structure.
RECRYSTALLIZATION – A process in which the distorted grain structure
of metals that are subjected to mechanical deformation is replaced by
a new strain free grain structure during annealing.
RUST PROOFING – Treatment of iron and steel parts to render them
resistant to rust, implies a more permanent form of protection.
SHERADIZING – Heat treatment process in which zinc dust is used for
producing a rust proof surface on ferrous metals. It derives its title from
the name of the inventor SHERARD OSBORN COWPER COLES.
SILICONIZING – Process in which iron and steel parts are impregnated
with silicon for improving the surface resistance to corrosion, heat
and wear.
SOAKING – A prolonged heating of a metal at a predetermined temperature
to create a uniform temperature throughout its mass.
SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT – A process in which an alloy is heated
to a predetermined temperature far a length of time that is suitable to
allow a certain constituent to enter into solid solution. The alloy is
then cooled quickly to hold the constituent in solution, causing the
metal to be in an unstable supersaturated condition. This condition is
often followed by age hardening.
STRAIN HARDENING – An increase in hardness and strength of a metal
that has been deformed by cold working or at temperatures lower
than the recrystallization range.
SUBZERO HEAT TREATMENT – Method of heat treatment of steel,
introducing a cooling period or periods at a temperature well below
freezing point, the object being to ensure complete transformation of
austenite to martensite.
TEMPERING STEEL – Heat treatment designed to relieve the stresses and
brittleness set up in carbon or alloy steel tools and other parts after
hardening and to restore the required degree of toughness and ductility
to hardened steel.
TINNING – Application of a layer of tin to the surface of another metal,

either as a protection against corrosion or as a preliminary to soldering.
WORK HARDENING – Phenomena in which the grains become distorted
and elongated in the direction of working (rolling). This process, also
called STRAIN HARDENING, hardens and strengthens metals but
reduces their ductility.
ZINC PLATING – Electroplating process for the deposition of zinc on
metallic surfaces.
CHAPTER
12
MECHANICS OF MACHINES
ABSOLUTE MOTION – Motion of a body in relation to some other

body which is at rest.
ACCELERATION – Rate of change of velocity with respect to time, of a
particle which is in motion. It is a vector quantity.
ADDENDUM – The radial distance from the pitch circle to the top of the
tooth.
ANGULAR ACCELERATION – The time rate of change of angular velocity.
ANGULAR VELOCITY – The time rate of change of angular displacement
of a point rotating about a fixed axis (expressed in radians per unit
time) Angular velocity of a machine part is often expressed in
revolutions per minute (RPM) and is denoted by n.
ANGULAR VELOCITY OF PRECISION – The rate of change in the
direction of the plane of rotation of a rotating disc.
ARC OF CONTACT – The arc traced out along the pitch circle while one
pair of teeth of gear wheels is in contact (divided into arc of approach
and arc of recess).
BEVEL GEARING – Gearing arrangement in which the axes of the shafts
connected by gears intersect.
CAM – A reciprocating, oscillating or rotating body which imparts
reciprocating or oscillating motion to a second body, called the
FOLLOWER with which it is in contact.
CAM PROFILE – The surface profile of the cam that decides the desired
motion of the follower.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE – Radial outward force acting on a body moving

along a circular path with uniform velocity.
CENTRIFUGAL GOVERNOR – The effort of the governor is obtained from
the change in centrifugal force on (usually) two rotating masses, known
as balls, when an increase or decrease in the governor speed occurs.
CENTRIPETAL FORCE – The force that must act radially inward in order
to constrain a particle to follow a curved path at uniform velocity.
CIRCULAR PITCH – Length of arc round the pitch circle between the
corresponding points on adjacent teeth of a gear.
COMPLEX MECHANISMS – Mechanisms which have two or more
floating links.
COMPOSITION OF VECTORS – Composition refers to the adding
together of any number of vectors. The sum is called their resultant
and the vectors are called the components of the resultant.
COMPOUND CHAIN – A kinematic chain in which there are more than
four pairs.
COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN – A gear train containing compound gears
i.e., gears, two or more in number integral with one another being used
on the same shaft.
COMPOUND PENDULUM – A rigid body suspended vertically so as to
oscillate with small amplitude under the action of gravity.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY – The total energy possessed by a system
of moving bodies is at every instant constant, provided no energy is
rejected to or received from a source external to the system.
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM – For a system of moving bodies
which is not acted upon by any external forces, the sum of the moments
remain constant.
CONTROLLING FORCE OF A GOVERNOR – The inward radial force
exerted on each ball of a centrifugal governor by the arms, springs etc.,
which are attached to it.
CURVILINEAR MOTION – A translation in which points in the body
move along curved path (motion of a wheel).
CYCLE OF MOTION – Motion of a mechanism when it moves through
all its possible configurations and returns to its starting position. The
time required for one cycle is called PERIOD.
Mechanics of Machines 149
CYCLOIDAL TEETH – Profile of the teeth formed by the locus of a

point on a circle rolling on the inside (for the flank) and on the outside
(for the face) of the pitch circle.
CYLINDRICAL CAM – Type of cam in which the motion of the follower
is controlled by a path traced out on the surface of a cylinder which is
rotating about its axis.
DEAD WEIGHT GOVERNOR – The governor in which the radius of the
ball path is controlled by levers and weights, the latter being usually
attached to the control sleeve.
DEDENDUM – The radial distance from the pitch circle to the bottom of
the tooth space.
DIAMETRAL PITCH – Number of teeth per inch diameter.
DISC CAM – An irregular disc rotating about a fixed axis and imparting
reciprocating or oscillating motion to a follower in a plane at right
angles to the cam axis.
DYNAMICS OF MACHINES – Treatment with the forces acting on the
parts of a machine and the motions resulting from these forces.
DYNAMOMETER – A device for measuring the forces or couples which
tend to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body.
ELLIPTIC TRAMMEL – An instrument used for drawing ellipses.
ENERGY – Capacity for doing work.
EPICYCLIC GEAR TRAINS – Gear trains in which the axis of one or
more gears moves relative to the frame. The gear at the centre is called
the SUN, and gears whose axes move are called PLANETS. Also called
PLANETARY GEARS.
EPICYCLOID – The locus of a point on the circumference of a circle which
rolls outside a circular arc, without slipping.
FLOATING LINK – A link in a mechanism which does not have a fixed
center of rotation (e.g., coupler in a four bar linkage).
FORCE – The entity which when acts on a body can cause a change in its
velocity or direction or both.
FRAME – That part of a machine which is stationary and which supports
the moving parts.
FRICTION DRIVE – Drive in which the rotation of one body causes another
body in contact with it to rotate due to sufficient friction between the
bodies.
GEAR CLEARANCE – The radial distance from the top of the tooth to the
bottom of the tooth space in a mating gear unit.
GEAR TRAIN – Unit composed of two or more gears in mesh for the
purpose of transmitting motion from one shaft to another.
GOVERNOR – Device that controls the mean speed of an engine over a
period of time, as distinct from the flywheel, which limits the
fluctuation of speed during one cycle but is not able to prevent a
change in mean speed from cycle to cycle.
GOVERNOR EFFORT – Mean force exerted at a sleeve due to a 1% change
in speed of governor.
GOVERNOR POWER – Work done at the sleeve for a 1% change in speed,
equal to the governor effort times the sleeve displacement.
GYROSCOPIC ACCELERATION – The rate of change of angular velocity
of precision of a rotating disc.
HELICAL MOTION – Motion of a body in which each point in the body
describes a helix. Helix is the locus of a point which rotates about an
axis at a fixed distance and at the same time moves parallel to the axis.
HELICAL GEARING – A type of spur gearing in which although the axes
of the shafts are parallel, the teeth are cut on helices instead of straight
across the wheels parallel to the axis.
HIGHER PAIRS – Types of kinematic pairs, namely, two elements generally
have line or point contact and the pair must be force closed in order
to provide completely constrained motion.
HUNTING OF GOVERNOR – The governor is said to hunt if the engine
speed is caused to fluctuate continually above and below the mean speed.
HYPOCYCLOID – The locus of a point on the circumference of a circle
which rolls inside a circular arc without slipping.
IMPULSE – Time integral of the impulsive force acting on a body.
IMPULSIVE FORCE – Force that acts on a body for an extremely short interval
of time and makes the body to move. Occur in collisions, in explosions,
in the striking of a nail by a hammer or of a pile by a tup or monkey.
INERTIA GOVERNOR – Governor in which the position of the flyballs

are affected by the rate of change of speed of the governor shaft.
INSTANT CENTRE – (1) A point in one body about which another body
is rotating either permanently or at the instant (2) A point common
to two bodies having the same linear velocity in both magnitude and
direction in each.
INTERMITTENT MOTION MECHANISM – A linkage which converts
continuous motion into intermittent motion (e.g., indexing mechanism).
INVOLUTE – The locus of a point on a straight line which rolls, without
slipping, on the circumference of a circle, or alternatively the locus of a
point on the chord which is held taught and unwound from a cylinder.
INVOLUTE TEETH – The outline of a tooth traced out by a point on a
chord unwrapped from a circle (known as base circle).
ISOCHRONISM OF GOVERNOR – A governor is said to be isochronous,
if , neglecting friction, the equilibrium speed is the same for all radii
of the flyballs.
KENNEDY’S THEOREM – Any three bodies having plane motion relative
to one another have three instant centers, and they lie in a straight line.
KINEMATIC CHAIN – A group of links either joined together or arranged
in a manner that permits them to move relative to one another.
KINEMATIC DIAGRAM – A scale drawing representing the machine so
that only the dimensions which affect its motions are recorded.
KINEMATIC PAIR – Two bodies in contact, between which there is relative
motion and this motion is completely constrained e.g., turning pair,
sliding pair, screw pair.
KINEMATICS OF MACHINES – A study of the relative motion of
machine parts e.g., displacement, velocity and acceleration.
KINETICS – Study which deals with the inertia force arising from the
combined effect of the mass and the motion of the parts.
LINEAR ACCELERATION – The time rate of change of liner velocity.
LINEAR VELOCITY – The time rate of change of linear displacement of a
point or body.
LINK – Name given to any body which has relative motion to another. Also
called ELEMENT. A RIGID LINK is one whose deformations
are so small that they can be neglected in determining the motions of

various other links in a machine. A belt or chain is a FLEXIBLE LINK.
LOWER PAIRS – Types of kinematic pairs, namely two elements have surface
contact and when relative motion takes place, the surface of one element
slides over the surface of the other element.
MACHINE – A combination of resisting bodies, with successfully constrained
relative motions, which is used for transmitting or transporting available
energy so as to do some particular kind of work e.g., electrical motor,
internal combustion engine.
MASS OF A BODY – The property of a body which determines its resistance
to change its velocity.
MECHANISM – A constrained kinematic chain which means the motion
of anyone link will give a definite, predictable motion to each of the
others.
MODULE – Reciprocal of diametral pitch.
MOMENTUM – The product of the mass and velocity of a body.
NORMAL ACCELERATION – The time rate of change of velocity of a
point in a direction normal to its path. This results from a change in
the direction of its linear velocity.
OLDHAM COUPLING – A mechanism for connecting two shafts having
parallel misalignment. The coupling transmits a constant velocity ratio.
PAIR – Two bodies in contact constitute a pair. LOWER PAIRING exists
when two surfaces are in contact. HIGHER PAIRING refers to the
contact which exists at a point or along a line.
PANTOGRAPH – Mechanism used to reproduce to an enlarged or reduced
scale and as exactly as possible the path described by a given point.
PARALLEL MECHANISMS – Linkages which give parallel motion (e.g.,
pantograph which is used for reducing or enlarging drawings and maps,
also used for grinding cutting tools or cutting torches to duplicate
complicated shapes).
PATH OF CONTACT – The path traced out by the point of contact
between a pair of teeth (may be divided into approach and recess).
PINION – The small of the two mating gear wheels.
PITCH CIRCLES – Equivalent rolling circles for a pair of mating gears.
PITCH CIRCLE DIAMETER – The diameter of a circle which by a pure

rolling action would transmit the same motion as the actual gearwheel.
PITCH LINE – The point of contact of two circles.
PITCH SURFACES – The cylindrical surfaces of the equivalent rolling circles
for a pair of mating gears.
PLANE MOTION – A body has plane motion if all the points move in
planes which are parallel to some reference plane (called plane of motion).
POSITIVE DRIVE – The drive that exists in a direct contact mechanism if motion
of the driving link compels the follower to move (e.g., cam and follower).
POWER – Rate of doing work or work done in unit time.
PRECESSIONAL MOTION – The change in the direction of the plane of
rotation of a rotating disc.
PRESSURE ANGLE – Angle between the common normal and the tangent
at the pitch point in a gear drive. Also called ANGLE OF
OBLIQUITY.
QUICK RETURN MECHANISM – The mechanism used in machine tools
such as shapers and power driven saws for the purpose of giving the
reciprocating cutting tool a slow cutting stroke and a quick return stroke
with a constant velocity of the driving crank.
RACK – A portion of a gear wheel which has an infinitely large number of teeth.
RACHETS – Mechanisms used to transform motion of rotation or
translation into intermittent rotation or translation.
RECTILINEAR MOTION – A motion wherein all points of the body
move in straight line paths (e.g., piston motion).
RELATIVE INSTANTANEOUS CENTER – In the case of two bodies, it
is the point about which either of them appears to turn (at that instant)
if the other is considered fixed (e.g., if two links in a mechanism are
pinned together, the pin becomes the relative instantaneous center, if
the two bodies are in pure rolling contact, the point of contact is the
relative instantaneous center).
RELATIVE MOTION – A body has motion relative to another body only
if there is a difference in their absolute motions.
RESOLUTION OF VECTORS – Resolution refers to the breaking down
of a vector into any number of component vectors.
REVERTED GEAR TRAIN – The compound gear train in which the first
and the last gears are coaxial (e.g., units used in automobile transmission,
lathe back gears, industrial speed reducers and in clocks).
ROLLING CONTACT – In a direct contact mechanism, rolling contact
exists only if there is no sliding and hence the tangential components
of velocities of the contact point on the two bodies are equal in
magnitude and direction.
ROTATION – In rotation all points in a body remain at fixed distances
from a line which is perpendicular to the plane of motion. This line is
the AXIS OF ROTATION.
SCALAR QUANTITIES – Those quantities which have magnitude only
(and no direction) e.g., distance, area, volume and time.
SENSITIVITY OF GOVERNOR – Ratio of the mean speed to the speed
range of the governor over its limits of operation.
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND MECHANISM – A simple mechanism
consists of three or four links. All other mechanisms, or those consisting
of more than four links are compound mechanisms. Compound
mechanisms are usually made up of combinations of simple
mechanisms.
SIMPLE GEAR TRAIN – A gear train in which there is only one gear on
each shaft.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION – A particle having rectilinear motion
has simple harmonic motion if its acceleration is proportional to the
displacement of the particle from a fixed point and is of opposite sign.
SKEW GEARING – Gearing arrangement in which the axes of the shafts
connected by gears are non parallel and non intersecting.
SLIDING CONTACT – Sliding exists in a direct contact mechanism
whenever the bodies have relative motion along the tangent through
their point of contact.
SPEED – The rate of change of magnitude of displacement with respect to
time.
SPHERICAL MOTION – A point has spherical motion if it moves in
three dimensional space and remains at a fixed distance from some
fixed point. A body has spherical motion if each point in the body has
spherical motion.
SPIRAL GEARING – A type of skew gearing, but differs in one respect i.e.,
the contact between pitch surfaces is point contact instead of line contact.
SPRING LOADED GOVERNOR – The governor in which the control of
the flyballs is by springs operated directly on the balls or on the sleeve.
SPUR GEARING – Gearing arrangement in which the axes of the shafts
connected by gears are parallel and the teeth are cut parallel to the axes.
STABILITY OF GOVERNOR – The governor is said to be stable if there is
one equilibrium speed for each radius of rotation of the flyballs and
this speed increases with the radius.
STATICS – Study which deals with forces which act on the various parts,
when these parts are assumed to be without mass.
STRAIGHT LINE MECHANISMS – Linkages having a point that moves
along a straight line or nearly along a straight line, without being guided
by a plane surface (e.g., Watts mechanism, Scott Russell mechanism).
TANGENTIAL ACCELLERATION – The time rate of change of velocity
of a point in a direction tangent to its path. This results from a change
in its linear velocity.
TRANSLATION – A body has translation if it moves so that all straight
lines in the body move in parallel positions.
UNCONSTRAINED KINEMATIC CHAIN – An arrangement of links
wherein for a given motion of one of the links, each of the others is
not constrained to move in a definite predictable manner.
UNIVERSAL JOINT – Joint used to connect intersecting shafts (e.g., Hooke
or cardan joint).
VECTOR QUANTITIES – Those entities which have magnitude and
direction. (e.g., displacement, velocity, acceleration and force). Vector
quantities are represented by a straight line with an arrow head (magnitude
is represented by its length and direction by the arrow head).
VELOCITY – When a particle is in motion, the rate of change of its
displacement with respect to time. It is a vector quantity.
VELOCITY RATIO OF GEAR TRAIN – Ratio of the angular velocity of
the first gear in the train to the angular velocity of the last gear.
WORM GEARING – A form of special gearing in which the axes of the
driving and driven shafts are usually at right angles and the velocity
ratio is high, the driving gear being of smaller diameter.
WORK – Product of the force acting on a body and the displacement of the
body caused by that force.
WORKING SURFACE – With respect to a gear, the working surface above
the pitch surface is called the FACE OF THE TOOTH and that below
the pitch surface is called the FLANK OF THE TOOTH.
CHAPTER
13
MATERIAL HANDLING
ADJUSTABLE RAMP – A loading platform that is power operated or

mechanically operated.
APRON CONVEYOR – A conveyor for transporting packages or bulk
materials, consisting of a series of metal or wood slats (also rubber,
cotton, felt wire etc.) attached to an endless chain. Also called SLAT
CONVEYOR.
ARRESTING GEAR – Means of sustaining the load which do not interfere
with the hoisting gear but prevent it from coming down due to gravity
e.g., ratchet and pawl arrangements and friction type.
AUTOMATIC GRAB – A crane grab in which the grasping and releasing of
the load are effected without manual assistance.
BAND or BELT CONVEYOR – An endless band passing over, and driven
by horizontal pulleys, thus forming a moving track which is used to
convey loose material or small articles.
BALANCED LUFFING – Luffing mechanism, in which the moment due
to the weight of the jib is at balance with the moment produced by
the counterweight.
BARGES AND LIGHTERS – Shallow draft, box like vessels used for cargo
transport in protected waters such as bays, rivers and canals.
BARREL ELEVATOR – This comprises parallel travelling chains, with curved
arms projecting. The chains pass over sproket wheels at the top and
bottom of the elevator, and lift barrels from a loading platform to a
runway.
BARREL HOPPER – A machine for unscrambling, orientating and feeding

small components during a manufacturing process, in which a revolving
barrel tumbles the components onto a sloping, vibrating feeding blade.
BAY – An area used for the open storage of heavy items.
BELT CONVEYOR – A conveyor which consists of a belt of suitable material
such as rubber, canvas, balata etc., running over a pair of end drums or
pulleys and supported at intervals by a series of rollers called idlers,
these in turn being supported on a conveyor frame.
BELT CONVEYOR IDLERS – Number of idler rolls provided between
the terminal pulleys to prevent the belt from sagging due to gravity
and under the load.
BELT CONVEYOR PULLEYS – Wheels used to support and drive the
belt. They include drive, terminal or bend, take up and snub pulleys.
BIN – An enclosed space for storing certain types of goods.
BIN TICKET – Tickets attached to storage places to provide information
on the quantity of goods received, issued and on hand.
BRACING – Securing the contents of a shipment to prevent shifting and
damage.
BRAKE – Arrangement in the hoisting machinery to stop the load and hold
it when applied to the hoisting motion or bring the relevant mechanisms
at rest within specified braking distances. May be a band brake, disc
brake or a cone brake.
BUCKET ELEVATOR – Conveyor equipped with buckets which carry bulk
material in the vertical or near vertical direction, loading is at the bottom
and discharging is at the top.
BULK COMMODITY TRUCK – Trucks used to transport loose bulk
materials, such as sand and gravel.
BUCKET OR SKIP HOISTS – Hoisting equipment for handling of bulk
materials in self dumping buckets or skips.
BULLDOZER – A pendant attachment mounted on crawler and wheel
tractors, that strips off soil surface and transports it to the required
spot.
CANTILEVER RACKS – Racks supported only on one end, leaving the
other end open for placing and removing the long bars, rods etc.
Material Handling 159
CAPSTAN DRUM – Equipment used for hoisting anchors on board ships,

hauling various loads etc.
CAR PULLERS – Equipment used for shunting railroad cars at ports and docks.
CAROUSEL – A rotating or circulating storage device. The worker stays in
one place while the needed item comes to the work station.
CHAIN CONVEYORS – Conveyors which employ chains of various designs
as the driving traction element. Chain conveyors carry aprons, pans,
buckets, cradles, pockets, cars etc.
CHOCKS – Supports used to keep boxes off the ground.
CHUTE – An inclined surface with sides for material movement by gravity.
COLD STORAGE WAREHOUSE – A warehouse used for storing highly
perishable goods and foods.
CONTAINERIZATION – Transportation of freight in sealed portable
containers.
CONVEYOR – A mechanism that moves material along a fixed path. A
mechanical device for carrying packages or bulk material from place
to place (as by an endless moving belt or a chain of receptacles).
COUNTER WEIGHTS – Weights provided on cranes to offset the dead
weight of metal structure and, to a certain extent, the moment due to
the hook load.
COVERED HOPPER – A freight car with a closed top designed to meet
the needs of malt and grain shippers.
CRANE – A machine for raising, shifting and lowering heavy weights by
means of projecting swinging arm or with the hoisting apparatus
supported on an overhead track.
CRANE DERRICK – The distance between the loads centre of gravity and
the axis about which crane boom can swing.
CRANE HELICOPTER – A crane hung from a helicopter, used as a means
of moving loads and doing a variety of jobs in regions which are difficult
of access, capable of descending vertically on the load and lifting it
from the ground directly.
CRAWLER CRANE – A crane mounted on a crawler mounting, e.g., a frame
supported by track laying assemblies which obtain the drive from an
engine mounted on a rotating part of the crane.
CREEPING DRIVE UNIT – An arrangement frequently employed on

electric hoists to obtain extra low spotting speeds.
DEAD ZONE – In a shop floor, when two overhead bridge cranes serve
adjacent bays, part of floor area (about 15 to 20%) inaccessible for
any of the hooks, as close as they may be. This is dead zone.
DERRICK – A framework over a drill hole (e.g., on oil well) for supporting
the boring mechanism for hoisting.
DIESEL ELECTRIC DRIVE – System consisting of a diesel generator set
and electric motors on all motions.
DOUBLE BOTTOM RIG – Two trailers joined to a tractor.
DOUBLE FACED PALLET – A pallet with two decks that form the top
and bottom surfaces.
DOUBLE STRING TIE – A method of tying heavy packages.
DOUBLE WALL CORRUGATED FIBREBOARD – Fibreboard
consisting of three flat facings and two corrugated pieces arranged in
alternate layers.
DOUBLE WRAP – Two or more sheets of paper used to wrap breakable articles.
DRIVEWAY INSTALLATION – A loading ramp that raises or lowers the
truck so that the floor of the truck is level with the dock.
DRUM – In hoisting unit, a device for spooling the rope in one layer or in
more than one layer.
DUNNAGE – Lumber or other material used to brace a shipment in
transport.
ELECTRIC DRIVE – An arrangement consisting of an electric motor,
suitable motor controls, and a gear train linking the motor with the
operating mechanism.
ELEVATOR – A platform or caged hoist that moves material or personnel
from one level to another.
ELEVATING GRADER – Machine that cuts soil layer by layer and moves it
away by means of a conveyor into a dump or onto transporting facilities.
ESCALATOR – Chain conveyor specially adapted for the vertical transportation
of people over an inclined path. It is an inclined conveyor with the driving
traction in the form of steeps attached to step drive chains and each escalator
step is carried on four wheels riding on tracks.
EXCELSIOR – Shredded or curled pieces of wood.

FISHYBACK – The transportation of highway trailer bodies abroad ship.
FLAMMABLE – A marking on the box to indicate that the contents may
easily set on fire or have a tendency to explode.
FLAT BED TRAILER – A flat surfaced platform with wheels.
FLATTENED STRAND WIRE ROPE – A modification of linear contact
ropes. During its manufacture, every strand laid from wires of circular
cross–section is radially squeezed over the circumference so as to flatten
the wires.
FLEX – Flow tank car. A pressurized tank car that can unload in a few minutes.
FLOATING CRANE – A crane mounted on self propelled or towed
pontoons, used for salvage work, along shore and offshore duties, crane
motions are accomplished with electric drives, commonly of the dc
type employing the Ward Leonard control.
FLOW RACK – Rack in which the material can be inserted at one side and
will move by gravity to the other where order picking takes place.
FORCE OF GRAVITY – Force decided by the attraction the earth exerts on
a body which, unlike the mass, depends on the local value of the
acceleration of free fall.
FORK LIFT TRUCK – Equipment designed to pick up, transport, stack
and unstack pallet loads.
FOURWAY PALLET – A pallet design that permits entry of materials
handling equipment from four sides.
FRAGILE – A marking on the box to indicate that the contents are delicate
and breakable.
GANTRY CRANE – Crane consisting of a bridge crane superimposed on
two frames or legs operating on a rail track flush with the ground.
GENERAL MERCHANDISE WAREHOUSE – The most common type
of public warehouse for storing manufactured or non-manufactured
goods that require protection.
GONDALA – A car with low sides and no top.
GRAB – Device suspended from the crane hook which grasp and release the
load (of given shape and size) at almost no time.
GRAVITY ROLLER CONVEYOR – A material handling installation in

which the bed consists of rolls fitted to a frame. Suitable for handling
of unit loads and containerized high volume materials.
HAND DRIVE – Manual operation which is in wide use on the hoisting
and slewing motions of slow running, low capacity machinery.
HOOK – Multipurpose attachment widely used in hoisting installations,
carries the load by one or more of slings made of hemp ropes or chains.
HYDRAULIC POWER EQUIPMENT – Unit which consists of an electric
motor or internal combustion engine driving a pump which feeds fluid
into the hydraulic operating cylinder through the lines with control valves.
H WARP – A method of wrapping large fragile items.
HOISTING MACHINE – Moves loads vertically as well as transfers them
from one point of the area covered by the machinery into another.
INDUSTRIAL TRUCK – A self powered, individually operated conveyance
for moving materials or persons.
JACK – Device used to lift loads through a short height some 0.8 to 1 m
used widely in repair and erection jobs, e.g., screw jacks, rack and lever
jack’s rack and pinion jacks and hydraulic jacks.
LANG LAY ROPE – A rope in which the wires are twisted in the same
direction as the strands are.
LEFT HAND LAY ROPES – Ropes in which the strands bend round to the
left.
LEVEL LUFFING – Luffing mechanism which ensures that the crane hook
travels along an almost horizontal path when luffing is in progress.
LIFT – Hoisting equipment adapted to lift loads vertically.
LIFTING CAPACITY – The maximum safe load the machine is designed
to handle.
LIFTING MAGNET – Handling device, operating on direct current. Widely
used in handling steel and cast iron loads.
LIFTING TACKLE – A system of stationary and movable sheaves
interlinked by a pliable member in the form of a wire rope to obtain a
gain in either force (power lifting tackle) or speed (speed lifting tackle).
LUFFING or DERRICKING – It is the pivoting of the crane jib in a vertical
plane so as to change the reach.
MANIPULATOR – A device that grasps an item and moves it to a new

position or orientation for the next operation. It may be a simple
pincer or complicated robot.
MATERIALS HANDLING – Procedures involving receiving, storing,
sorting, packing, shipping, freight handling and controlling of goods
and materials.
MONORAILS – An overhead track (usually an I beam) upon which the
carriers or hoists move.
MULTIPLE RACK CAR – Special equipment designed to carry motor cars.
NON-SPINNING ROPES – Multilayer constructions having alternately
opposite lays of individual layers.
OPEN HOPPER – A freight car with an open top and collapsible bottom.
ORDINARY LAY ROPE – A rope in which the direction of twist of wires is
opposite to that of the strands in the rope.
ORDINARY (untwisting) ROPES – Ropes in which the wires and strands
fail to retain their position once the wire sizings are removed from the
ends and consequently, these ropes tend to untwist.
ORIGINATING CARRIER – The first carrier to receive the goods from
the shipper.
OVERHEAD BRIDGE CRANE – A shop floor unit consisting of a trolley
or crab equipped with a hoisting mechanism, a bridge travelling on
wheels fitted to end carriages and supported by track rails, which in
their turn are fixed to rail supports provided either at the top of the
shop walls or columns.
OVER LOAD PROTECTION DEVICE – Units provided on the hoisting
motion that automatically cut out the hoisting motor on jib and tower
cranes when the excess of load lifted is not less than 10 per cent of the
rated capacity.
PALLET – A standard platform on which material is placed for storage and
movement. The platform has an upper and lower flat surface with
space between for the forks of an industrial lift truck.
PIGGYBACK (TOFC) – Transportation of highway trailers or demountable
trailer bodies on specially equipped cars.
PIN WHEEL PLATFORM – A pallet pattern used for the arrangement of
items of unequal length or width.
PIPE LINES – Specialized carriers that transport petroleum or natural gas.

PLATE CLAMP – Handling attachment which is an eccentric clamp used
for handling steel sheets and plates in the vertical position.
PNEUMATIC CONVEYING – Method of transporting bulk materials in
the form of powder, short fibre and granules over a pipe line as a
mixture with air or due to the pressure of air, e.g., suction or vacuum
type systems, pressure type systems, combination systems.
PNEUMATIC DRIVE – System in which compressed air is admitted into
direct acting cylinders under pressure, the piston rods are linked with
the business end.
PORTABLE PLATE – A loading ramp that can be moved to any loading
position on the deck.
POSITIONER – A device that orients and positions the part for the next
operation.
POWER DRIVE – Drive provided in the form of electric motor, steam
engine, internal combustion engine, hydraulic or air motor. Includes
combinations such as diesel electric, electro hydraulic, electro
pneumatic drives.
POWER SHOVEL – An earth digging machine with an operating member
(bucket) which digs soil, carries it over a small distance and dumps it
in a pile or onto transporting facilities.
PREFORMED WIRE ROPES – The ropes in which the wires and strands,
before being laid, are preformed to fit the shape they carry in the rope.
RACK – A storage place for individual items or palletized loads.
RAIL ROAD CRANE – Crane mounted on a truck meeting railroad
requirements and supported by axles of varying number used for load
handling and wreckage clearing purposes, carry a power unit which is
a combination of a diesel, a generator and a number of electric motors.
REACH OF CRANE – Distance of the load from the axis of the rotary part
of the crane, decided by crane stability, decreases with an increase in
the load to be handled.
REVERSIBLE PALLET – A pallet with an identical top and bottom deck.
REVOLVING CRANE – A crane which can lift up the load and transfer it
to any point of a circle with a radius equal to the reach, being thus
suitable for loading the rail road flat cars and lorries, for construction
site works etc. e.g., travelling revolving crane, fixed revolving crane.
RIGHT HAND LAY ROPES – Ropes in which the strands bend round to
the right.
ROW PATTERN – A pallet pattern used for the arrangement of items of
unequal length or width.
SCRAPER – Machine that removes earth slice by slice, transports and places it
in an earth structure, or pushes it to a dump and then levels the same.
SCREW CONVEYORS – Installations serving to move materials over a
trough by a rotating screw. Also called SPIRAL CONVEYORS.
SEAL – A small metal strip that is placed on a railroad car door when loading
is completed.
SELF CLOSING GRAB – A crane grab which can pick up the load
automatically but must be released with manual assistance.
SELF LEVELING – Bringing the lift to a stop so that its platform is level
with the landing.
SEMI GANTRY CRANES – Hoisting installations in which one pair of
legs travels over a track placed on a low foundation while the other
pair receives support from an elevated track laid on a trestle or track
girder attached to the building.
SHAKING CONVEYOR – Unit which consists of a deck in the form of a
trough or pan suspended from, or supported by a stationary frame
and the deck is induced to oscillate, causing the material to move
along at a pace and in a mode governed by the character of the
oscillations, e.g., oscillating conveyors and vibrating conveyors.
SINGLE FACED CORRUGATED FIBRE BOARD – Fibre board with a
flat facing of corrugated material on one side.
SINGLE FACED PALLET – A pallet consisting of one deck.
SINGLE WALL CORRUGATED FIBRE BOARD – Fibre board with a
flat facing of corrugated material on both sides.
SKID – Similar to pallets except it has no bottom surface.
SKIP HOIST – Conveyor which consists of a bucket moving between guides,
with the power of a cable reeved round sheaves and drums which turn
through electric drives. Used for vertical movement of coal.
SLIP SHEET – A single sheet of heavy, strong, corrugated fibre board or

plastic. Unit load is pulled on it and the forks of the lift truck slide
underneath.
SLOTTED STYLE BOX – A box with slots, made from a single piece of
fibreboard.
SOFC – A container stacked on a flat car.
SOLID FIBRE BOARD – Two or more layers of fibre board glued together
to make a single sheet.
SPAN – Horizontal distance between the axes of crane track rails.
SPEED GUARD – Device which prevents the hook loads from acceleration
beyond a set limit. They are usually centrifugal brakes (e.g., centrifugal
disc brake, centrifugal internal block brake), hydraulic units and eddy
current brakes.
SPIRAL or SCREW CONVEYORS – Unit which employs an endless
hellicoid screw rotating in a trough. The movement of the screw
gradually moves the material to a higher location.
STABILITY OF A CRANE – The ratio of the righting and tipping moments
taken about a tipping axis.
STABILITY COEFFICIENT OF CRANE PROPER – The ratio of the
moment produced by the dead weight of all crane components, with
the allowance for a track gradient effect facilitating the chance of
overturning, taken about a tipping axis to the moment set up by a
wind pressure exceeding the safe maximum operating value taken with
respect to the same tipping axis.
STABILITY COEFFICIENT OF A CRANE UNDER A LOAD – Ratio
of the moment set up by the dead weight of crane components with
the allowance of additional forces (wind effect, inertia at starting and
stopping the hoisting, slewing and travelling motions, effect of track
ground gradient) taken about a tipping axis to the moment due to the
working load about the same axis.
STOP OFF CAR – A car that stops at two or more destinations to finish
loading or to partly unload.
STOWAGE – Arrangement of freight in the hold of the ship.
STRINGER – Timber that runs the length of a pallet.
TANK TRUCK – A truck in which liquids are transported.

TRACTOR – A crawler or wheel mounted, self propelled vehicle designed
to perform agricultural, earthmoving, road making, load carrying and
other work.
TRACTOR TRAILER TRAIN – The combination of a puller unit with a
train of wheeled dollies.
TRAVELLING CANTILEVER WALL CRANE – Crane arranged to travel
over tracks secured to a side wall of the building.
TRAVELLING GANTRY CRANE – A crane which has a rigid four legged
gantry travelling over a track laid along the work area, topping the gantry
is a rotary part with a jib, a movable counter weight, hoisting and luffing
units.
TRUCK – A self powered wheel vehicle used for carrying loads and people.
TRUCK CRANES – Cranes mounted on chassis of standard design or on
special purpose chassis with tyred wheels.
TYPE I HAND CRANK – Unit directly linked to the load brake and
requiring a constant effort in order to lower the load which descends
at a rate corresponding to the rate of crank rotation.
TYPE II HAND CRANK – An arrangement to effect lowering of load at a
speed exceeding that of hoisting and finds application where this mode
of operation is called for by process requirements.
TWO WAY PALLET – A pallet design that permits forks or hand pallet
trucks to enter from two sides only and in opposite directions.
UNITIZED LOAD – A grouping of smaller shipments that are bound
together to travel as a single larger unit, also called UNIT LOAD.
UPENDERS AND DUMPERS – Specialized machines used to unload
materials handling carriers at a desired location.
VACUUM LIFTER – End of line attachment, a convenient means of handling
sheet stock of various kind (steel, non-ferrous metals, glass etc.) along
with cartons, boxes etc. To lift a load, the vacuum cup is applied to its
surface, and the vacuum generator is set into operation, creating a vacuum
in the cup.
VERTICAL LIFT – A ferris-wheel type conveyor that moves goods from
the receiving area to the checking area.
WEIGHT OF A BODY – Force which the body exerts on the support due
to the force of gravity.
WINCH – Equipment used for hauling, pulling, or hoisting e.g., rope and
chain winches, stationary winches, mobile winches.
CHAPTER
14
FRICTION, LUBRICATION AND
BEARINGS
ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY – Force per unit area required to move a surface

at unit velocity, when it is separated by a fluid of unit thickness from
a stationary surface.
ADDITIVES – Chemical compounds used to alter the characteristics of
lubricating oils.
ANGLE OF REPOSE – The minimum inclination which a plane can have
consistent with the body on it sliding down the plane by the force of
gravity. It is the same as the friction angle.
ANTI CORROSION ADDITIVES – Chemical compounds added to
lubricating oil to reduce or prevent the chemical reaction of acids
(formed by the oxidation of oil) which destroy some bearing materials,
such as lead in lead copper bearings, used for crankshafts and
connecting rods of engines.
ANTI OXIDATION ADDITIVES – Chemical compounds added to
decrease oxidation of the oil. These have a greater affinity for oxygen
than does the oil.
API HEAVY DUTY TYPE OIL – Motor oil having oxidation stability,
bearing corrosion preventive properties, and detergent-dispersant
characteristics necessary to make it generally suitable for use in both
high speed diesel and gasoline engines under heavy duty service
conditions.
API PREMIUM TYPE OIL – Motor oil having the oxidation stability and
bearing corrosion preventive properties necessary to make it generally
suitable for use in internal combustion engines where operating
conditions are more severe than regular duty.
API REGULAR TYPE OIL – Motor oil generally suitable for use in internal
combustion engines under moderate operating conditions.
BALL BEARING – An antifriction bearing where the rolling elements are
spherically shaped. Bearing consists of an inner and outer hardened
steel races separated by a series of hardened steel balls.
BATH LUBRICATION – Lubrication system in which the bearing contains
a space filled with oil, which is in contact with a portion of the journal.
BEARING – The part which transmits the load to the support and in so
doing, takes the friction caused by the moving parts in contact. Area
of the unit in which the contacting surface of a revolving part rests.
BEARING CAPS – On an engine, caps held in place by bolts or nuts which,
in turn, hold bearing halves in place.
BEARING CRUSH – The additional height over a full half which is purposely
manufactured in each bearing half. This ensures complete contact of
the bearing back with the housing bore when the unit is assembled.
BEARING FAILURE – Failure of a bearing due to continued flexing of the
bearing surface from the applied load.
BEARING OIL CLEARANCE – The space purposely provided between
the revolving shaft and the bearing in which it rotates. Through this
space lubricating oil can flow.
BEARING PRELOAD – Amount of static pressure exerted on a bearing or a
set of bearings. Preload is usually adjusted by a threaded collar or shims.
BEARING PRELUBRICATOR – A special tank attached to an airline which
supplies oil at a predetermined and maintained pressure to the engine
lubricating system when the engine is not operating.
BEARING SPACER – A piece of tubing used between the two wheel bearing
inner races to prevent unwanted bearing preload as the axle is tightened.
BEARING SPIN – A type of bearing failure caused by lack of lubrication
which overheats the bearing while the crankshaft is still in place.
BEARING SPREAD – A purposely manufactured small extra distance across
the parting faces of the bearing half in excess of the actual diameter of
the housing bore.
BYPASS FILTER – An oil filter that constantly only filters a portion of the
oil flowing through the engine or machine.
Friction, Lubrication and Bearings 171
BOUNDARY FRICTION – The resistance to relative motion when one

solid surface is caused to move tangentially over another, the surfaces
being covered only by an adsorbed contamination film.
BOUNDARY LUBRICATION – Type of lubrication in which the two
surfaces have between them a more or less complete layer of oil which
is only, at the most, a few molecules thick.
BUSHING – A member that takes up space and usually allows movement
at the attachment point. A one piece replaceable sleeve placed in a
bore to serve as a bearing surface. Bearing for shaft, spring shackle,
piston pin etc. A metallic or synthetic lining for a hole.
CARBON RESIDUE – Determined (canradson carbon test) by evaporating
under specified test conditions, a known weight of oil and weighing
the residue.
CENTIPOISE – A unit of viscosity of a fluid used in figuring pressure drop etc.
CENTRIFUGAL OIL SLINGER – Cup shaped centrifugal oil filter
mounted to the end of the crankshaft. As the oil passes through the
slinger, centrifugal force removes impurities that are heavier than oil.
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION – Ratio between the resistance due to
friction in the direction of motion and the load carried normal to the
plane of motion.
COLLAR BEARING – The collar which may be at any part of the length of
the shaft, takes up the thrust produced along the axis of the shaft.
CRANKCASE DILUTION – Dilution of lubricating oil in the oil pan by
liquid gasoline seeping down the cylinder walls. Accumulation of
unburned gasoline in the crankcase.
CRITICAL SPEED – The limiting or critical speed corresponding to a given
pressure is that speed at which surface irregularities may intervene and
so lead to seizure.
DETERGENTS – Added to lubricating oils to improve the tendency of the
oil to wash or cleanse the surface where oxidation products form, thereby
resulting in a marked reduction in ring sticking, particularly in heavy
duty service, and a marked improvement in cleanliness of pistons.
DETERGENT OIL – An oil which keeps particles and contaminants in
suspension and has ability to neutralize acids resulting from combustion
process.
DIRECT BEARING LUBRICATION – An oil injection system which

feeds undiluted oil to two stroke cycle engine main bearings and rod
big end bearings.
DRY SUMP-LUBRICATION – In this system, oil is gravity fed to supply
side of oil pump from the remote oil tank. After the oil has been
pumped through four stroke cycle engine, it is returned to the oil
tank by return side of oil pump.
FILM LUBRICATION – Type of lubrication in which the two metallic
surfaces are separated by a continuous film of liquid oil of measurable
thickness which forces itself between them.
FIRE POINT OF OIL – The temperature at which the oil vapour on the
oil surface ignites and burns for at least five seconds, when heated
gradually, under specified test conditions.
FLASH POINT OF OIL – The temperature at which a momentary flash
appears on the heated oil surface when a test flame is applied, under
specified test conditions. It is a rough indication of the tendency of
the oil to vapourize.
FOOT STEP BEARING – The bearing at the foot of a vertical shaft.
FORCE FEED LUBRICATION – A gear pump takes oil from the sump
and delivers it to the distributor ducts which connect with all the
main bearings and camshaft bearings, from where the oil reaches the
various parts that need lubrication.
FORCE OF FRICTION – The least force acting parallel to the sliding surfaces
of the bodies in contact, which will cause one body to slide over the other.
FRICTION – The force which acts between two bodies at their surface of
contact so as to resist their sliding on each other, due to roughness of
the surfaces. Also called FRICTIONAL FORCES.
FRICTION ANGLE – Angle which the resultant force makes with the normal
to the plane when sliding begins. Also called LIMITING ANGLE OF
RESISTANCE or LIMITING ANGLE OF REACTION.
FRICTION BEARINGS – Bearings having sliding contact between the
moving surfaces. Sleeve bearings, such as those used in connecting
rods, are friction bearings.
GEAR OIL PUMP – An oil pump with gear type teeth to move oil.
GREASE – The term is applied to a mixture of mineral oil with fats that
have been saponified with an alkali. To this mixture fillers may or may
not be added.
HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION – A condition that occurs when a
film of oil is constantly maintained between moving parts.
INNER RACE – In a bearing assembly, the part that connects a rotating
shaft to the bearing.
JOURNAL – In a shaft, the hardened polished area that is used with a bearing.
LAWS OF FRICTION – The force of friction is (1) directly proportional to the
pressure between the surfaces in contact, (2) independent of the extent of
the surfaces in contact and (3) independent of the velocity of sliding.
LOAD MOTION – Rolling or sliding motion found at the bearing surfaces.
LUBRICANT – A fluid having two essential properties namely viscosity
and oiliness, and used to reduce friction.
LUBRICATING FILM – A thin coating of lubricant (oil) which prevents
contact between moving parts.
LUBRICATING SYSTEM – The system in the engine that supplies
lubricating oil to the moving engine parts, to prevent actual contact
between the moving surfaces.
LUBRICATION – Use of lubricant (oil or grease) to reduce friction.
MAIN BEARINGS – In the engine block, the bearings that support the
crankshaft.
MICHELL THRUST BEARING – Type of tilting pad thrust bearing, the
thrust supporting surface is divided into a number of segmental pads,
which pivot on a radial edge at the back, and so automatically adjust
themselves to the required slope.
MULTIGRADE OIL – An oil that retains its viscosity under varying
temperature conditions better than a single weight oil.
ML OIL – Oil for light automotive service.
MM OIL – Oil for medium or average automotive service.
MS OIL – Oil for severe automotive service.
MULTI WEIGHT OIL – Type of oil that provides adequate lubrication at
both high and low temperatures.
MULTIPLE VISCOSITY OIL – An engine oil which has a low viscosity

when cold (for easier cranking and a higher ) viscosity when hot (to
provide adequate lubrication).
NEEDLE BEARING – Antifriction bearing of the roller type, the rollers are
very small in diameter (needle sized). Rollers have a length over four
times greater than their diameter.
NEEDLE LUBRICATOR – A needle which rests on a journal and exposed at
top to the oil in an inverted glass bottle or reservoir, causes oil to flow
slowly onto the journal, due to the vibration set up during shaft rotation.
OIL – A liquid lubricant derived from crude oil used to provide lubrication
between moving parts.
OIL CLEANER – The filtering device through which oil passes, which filters
dirt and dust from the oil.
OIL CONSUMPTION – Oil pumped into the combustion chamber of an
engine by the piston and rings and burnt there in a given time.
OIL CONTROL RINGS – The lower ring or rings on the piston of an
engine, designed to prevent excessive amounts of oil from working up
into the combustion chamber.
OIL COOLER – A small radiator through which the oil flows to lower its
temperature.
OIL DILUTION – Dilution of oil in the crankcase of a SI engine, by leakage
of liquid gasoline from the combustion chamber past the piston rings.
OIL FILTER – Unit in the lubrication system through which oil passes to
remove any impurities from oil. It may be paper, wire screen or rotor
designed to keep oil clean.
OIL LEVEL INDICATOR – The indicator, usually called the dipstick, that
can be removed to determine the level of oil in the crankcase of an
engine or machine.
OIL PAN – The detachable lower part of the engine made of sheet metal,
which encloses the crankcase and acts as an oil reservoir.
OIL PASSAGES – Holes and passages drilled in the block and in the engine
parts through which oil flows.
OIL PRESSURE GAUGE – An instrument used to measure and indicate
the amount of oil pressure in the lubrication system.
OIL PUMP – In the lubricating system, the device that delivers oil from the
oil pan to the various moving engine/machine parts.
OIL PUMP BLEEDING – Removal of air from the supply line and the
pump in a two stroke cycle oil injection system.
OIL PUMPING – Passing of oil past the piston rings into the combustion
chamber because of defective rings, worn cylinder walls etc.
OIL RESERVOIR – That space in the base of the oil separator where oil is
accumulated prior to its return to the pump.
OIL SEAL – A seal placed around a rotating shaft or other moving part, to
prevent passage or escape of oil.
OIL SEAL AND SHIELD – Two devices used to control oil leakage past
the valve stem and guide into the ports or the combustion chamber.
OIL SPILL RING – Collars or oil throw rings put on the rotating shaft,
prevent oil leakage along the shaft, utilizing the increase of centrifugal
force with the increase of diameter.
OIL STRAINER – A wire mesh screen placed at the inlet end of the oil
pump pickup tube to prevent dirt and other large particle from entering
the oil pump.
OUTER RACE – In a roller/ball bearing assembly, the stationary part that
supports the rotating load on the bearing.
OXIDIZED OIL – Oil that has been chemically combined with oxygen as
a result of excessive heat, oil agitation, and exposure to combustion
contaminants.
PAD LUBRICATION – A part of the bearing surface upon which there is
no pressure is dispensed with, and its place is taken by a soft pad,
which is kept saturated with lubricant.
PICKUP SCREEN – A screen in the oil pan that prevents any large particles
from entering the oil pump.
PIVOT BEARING – Pivot portion (flat or conical) which is on the end of
a shaft, that takes up the thrust produced along the axis of the shaft.
PLAIN BEARING – A one or two piece assembly consisting of a hard metal
backing piece with a softer metal mated to it.
PLUNGER OIL PUMP – An oil pump that uses a piston or plunger and
check valves to move oil.
POUR POINT OF OIL – The temperature at which the oil will not flow
when cooled under specified conditions, due to formation of wax.
PREMIX – Two stroke cycle engine lubrication is provided by oil, mixed
with fuel in the fuel tank.
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE – A spring loaded valve used to regulate the
pressure in the lubrication system.
PRESSURIZED FEED OIL SYSTEM – A type of engine lubricating system
that makes use of an oil pump to force oil through tubes and passages
to the various engine parts requiring lubrication.
PROFILOMETER – Instrument used to measure the surface irregularities.
RING LUBRICATION – Two loose rings carried by the journal rotation,
being driven by frictional contact with the journal, dip into an oil
bath and carry oil to the top of the journal so as to flow over the
surface of the journal through oil grooves in the bearing, and finally
return to the bath below.
ROLLER BEARING – An antifriction bearing consisting of hardened steel
inner and outer races, separated by hardened steel rollers, which are
two or three times as wide as their diameter.
ROLLING FRICTION – The force resisting the motion when a body rolls
on a surface.
ROTARY OIL PUMP – An oil pump which uses an inner and outer rotor
to move oil.
SCHIELE’S PIVOT – A pivot bearing on a shaft, designed to give uniform
wear in the direction of the axis with uniform pressure, the coefficient
of friction being assumed to be constant.
SCRAPER RING – A piston ring that assists in compression and wipes off
the excess oil from the cylinder walls.
SEAL – A material, shaped around a shaft, used to close off the operating
compartment of the shaft, preventing oil leakage.
SEIZING – The phenomenon in which the metal surfaces adhere and then tear
owing to relative motion, caused by the attraction between molecules on
opposite sides of the common surface between two elements of a bearing.
SERVICE RATING – For lubricating oils used in engines, a designation that
indicates the type of service for which the oil is best suited.
SHIM (bearing) – A strip of copper or similar material used under a bearing

cap, for example, to increase bearing clearance.
SKIMMING – Using a machine to remove oil or scum from the surface of
the water.
SLUDGE – Accumulation in oil pan, containing water, dirt and oil, sludge
is very viscous and tends to prevent lubrication.
SPLASH FEED OIL SYSTEM – A type of engine lubricating system that
depends on the splashing of oil for lubrication of moving parts. The
engine is enclosed, and the crankcase contains oil into which the cranks
dip and splash as they rotate, throwing the oil over the various bearings.
STATICAL FRICTION – Friction at starting from rest, and this is greater
than the friction of motion and depends on the hardness of the bodies
and the length of time during which they have been in contact.
SUMP – A system for storing oil, either in the crankcase (wet sump) or in a
separate tank (dry sump).
SYNTHETIC OIL – Oil made from material other than petroleum.
SYPHON LUBRICATOR – The unit in which the oil stored in a cup above
a journal, is delivered slowly to the bearing through a wick which acts
as a syphon.
TAPERED ROLLER BEARING – An antifriction bearing where the rolling
element is similar to a roller bearing, however it has a taper along its
axis, allowing it to accept axial loads in one direction.
THICK FILM LUBRICATION – Lubrication arrangement wherein there
is no metal to metal contact. Also called PERFECT LUBRICATION.
THIN FILM LUBRICATION – Type of lubrication that occurs when the
condition of bearing operation reduce the thickness of the oil film
sufficiently to make the rubbing of the bearing surfaces a near
possibility. Oiliness of the lubricant is important in this type of
lubrication.
THRUST BEARING – In the engine, the main bearing has thrust faces
which prevent excessive endwise movement of the crankshaft.
VALVE STEM SEAL or SHIELD – A device placed on or surrounding the
valve stem to reduce the amount of oil which can get on the stem and
thereby work its way down into the combustion chamber.
VARNISH – A build up of oxidized oil or fuel.

VISCOSITY – Resistance of oil to flow. The thickness of an oil is determined
by its rate of flow, a thick oil has a greater viscosity than a thin oil.
Unit of viscosity is centipoise.
VISCOSITY INDEX – A measure of the change of viscosity with temperature
of an oil compared with two reference oils having the same viscosity at
210°F one of naphthenic base and the other of paraffinic base.
VISCOSITY INDEX IMPROVERS – Additives added to an oil, to reduce
the change of viscosity with increase in temperature.
VISCOSITY RATING – An oil classification based on the time it takes for
an amount of oil to flow through a capillary tube, under specified
conditions, the higher the rating, the thicker the oil.
WARNING LIGHT – A light on the instrument or control panel that turns
on to warn of low oil pressure.
WORK OF FRICTION – Product of the frictional force and the distance
through which it moves.
CHAPTER
15
THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT
TRANSFER
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE – The temperature of a substance measured

above absolute zero.
ABSOLUTE ZERO TEMPERATURE – Temperature at which all molecular
motion ceases, according to the kinetic theory of gases. A point which
has been determined on the thermodynamic scale (by theoretical
considerations) beyond which a further decrease in temperature is
inconceivable. This is equal to – 459.6° on the fahrenheit scale and –
273.1° on the centigrade scale.
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALES – Used for calculating changes in
refrigerant vapour pressures.
ADIABATIC EXPANSION or COMPRESSION – Expansion or
compression where the temperature rises during compression and falls
during expansion without any loss of heat to the cylinder walls or
absorption of heat from the walls.
ADIABATIC HEAT DROP – The heat energy released and theoretically
capable of transformation into mechanical work during the adiabatic
expansion of unit weight of steam or other vapour or gas.
ADIABATIC SYSTEM – is the system which is insulated from its
surroundings. In this system no heat transfer takes place i.e., either into
the system or out of the system. It can however exchange work with
the surroundings.
AIR – A gas consisting principally of a mechanical mixture of 23.2 per cent
(by weight) of oxygen, 65.5 per cent of nitrogen and 1.3 per cent of
argon.
AIR STANDARD EFFICIENCY – The thermal efficiency of an internal

combustion engine working on the appropriate air standard cycle.
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE – Temperature (usually of the air)
surrounding the operating equipment.
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS – Also called engineering thermodynamics
deals with special applications such as energy transfer as power generation,
refrigeration and, compression and expansion of gases and fluids.
ATKINSON CYCLE – A working cycle for internal combustion engines, in
which the expansion ratio exceeds the compression ratio, more efficient
than the Otto Cycle, but mechanically impracticable.
ATMOSPHERIC LINE – A datum line drawn on an indicator diagram by
allowing atmospheric pressure to act on the indicator piston or
diaphragm.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE – Force exerted by the weight of the
atmosphere on every point with which it is in contact. It is generally
taken as 1.03 kscm at sea level.
AVAGADRO’S LAW – Equal volumes of different gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules.
AVAILABLE ENERGY – That portion of a quantity of heat which could be
transformed into work by means of a reversible engine.
BASIC UNITS – are length, mass, time, temperature and angle.
BLACK BODY – A body which absorbs all the radiation falling on it i.e.,
has a non-reflecting surface. A black body emits the maximum amount
of radiation possible at a given temperature, and the amount is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
BOILING POINT – The temperature at which a liquid boils for any given
surrounding atmospheric pressure. Now the saturation pressure of the
vapour equals that of the atmosphere.
BOUNDARY – is a real physical surface or an imaginary surface enclosing
some matter. The boundary may be a fixed one or a varying one.
BOYLE’S LAW – The absolute pressure of a gas will vary inversely as the
volume, if the temperature remains constant. Or conversely, the volume
will vary inversely as the absolute pressure, if the temperature remains
constant.
Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 181
BRAKE HORSE POWER – Useful power available from an engine. Also

called SHAFT HORSE POWER.
CALORIE – The heat per unit weight, one gram, required to raise the
temperature of water through one degree centigrade.
CELSIUS – The scale of changes of temperature which uses 0 degree as the
freezing point and 100 degree as the boiling point for water at standard
pressure.
CHARLE’S LAW – At constant pressure, the volume of a gas is proportional
to its absolute temperature. At constant volume, the pressure is
proportional to its absolute temperature.
CLOSED SYSTEM – The system which will have boundaries across which
both heat and work can penetrate, but no mass will be permitted to
cross them.
Cp – Specific heat at constant pressure-Heat to be supplied to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of gas through 1°C, the pressure being kept constant
(in other words external work is done).
Cv – Specific heat at constant volume-Heat to be supplied to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of gas through 1°C, the volume being kept constant
(in other words no external work is done).
COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION – The fractional increase in length or
volume per degree rise in temperature.
COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION – Amount of expansion per
unit length, per degree rise in temperature.
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE OF A HEAT PUMP – COPHP =
Heat added to the hot body/work supplied.
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE OF A REFRIGERATOR –
COPRef = Heat removed from cold body/work supplied.
COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY – The quantity of
heat that will flow across a unit area in unit time if the temperature
gradient across this area is unity.
COLD – A comparative lack of heat, indicating chillness.
COMPRESSED SOLID – is a solid at a temperature below its saturation
temperature.
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR, Z – is the factor introduced to modify

the ideal gas equation Pv = RT, and to describe the behaviour of a real
gas. Z = Pv/RT.
CONDENSATE – The liquid formed by the condensation of a gaseous substance.
CONDENSATION – The change of state of a substance from the gaseous
to the liquid form.
CONDENSING – The process of giving up latent heat of vapourization in
order to liquefy a vapour.
CONDUCTION – Transfer of heat from one part of a material to another
or to a material with which it is in contact.
CONDUCTIVITY – The relative value of a material, as compared with a
standard, in affording a passage through itself or over its surface for heat.
CONSTANT VOLUME PROCESS – is one wherein a gas is heated (or
cooled) in a fixed enclosed space (no change in volume occupied by the
gas). There will be no workdone by the gas. The whole heat supplied
will be stored in the form of internal energy.
CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESS – Also called isobaric process. Heat
supplied to a system exhibits as the change in enthalpy.
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE PROCESS – Also called isothermal
process. There is no change in temperature and hence internal energy
and enthalpy remain constant. Heat supplied = work done.
CONVECTION – Passage of heat from one point to another by means of a
gravity fluid circulation due to changes in density resulting from picking
up and giving up heat. Also transfer of heat to or from a fluid (liquid or
gas) flowing over the surface of a body.
COSMIC RADIATION – Radiation of many sorts, but mostly atomic
nuclei (protons) with very high energies, originating outside the earth’s
atmosphere.
COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER – A heat exchanger in which
the warm substance flows in the opposite direction to the flow of the
cool substance.
CRITICAL STATE OF A SUBSTANCE – is that state at which liquid and
vapour coexist in equilibrium. At critical state, latent heat of evaporation
becomes zero.
CRITICAL PRESSURE – The critical pressure of a vapour is the pressure

required to liquefy it at the critical temperature and is the highest pressure
on the temperature -pressure graph for saturated vapour.
CRITICAL TEMPERATURE – Temperature of the vapour above which
no pressure, however high, will produce liquefaction.
CRITICAL VELOCITY – The velocity above which fluid flow is turbulent.
CYCLIC PROCESS – is a process (or a series of processes) which returns the
system to the state it was before the process began.
DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES – At a common temperature,
a mixture of gases will exert on the sides of the vessel a total pressure
equal to the sum of the pressures which each constituent would exert
separately if it alone occupied the vessel.
DERIVED UNITS – are those derived from basic units, e.g., force, work,
density etc.
DIMENSIONS – are the properties by which the physical quantity of an
object may be described.
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE – The actual temperature of air, as opposed
to wet bulb temperature.
DRY STEAM – Steam containing no moisture. It may be either saturated or
superheated steam.
DRY SATURATED STEAM – Saturated steam, as generated from water,
that contains no moisture in suspension.
EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the useful work performed by a prime mover to
the energy expended. In other words the output divided by the input.
ENERGY – Stored work, that is the ability to do work.
ENTHALPY – Name given to the total heat in the fluid at any temperature.
ENTROPY TEMPERATURE DIAGRAM – In thermodynamics, the base
of a heat diagram, the area of which is heat units and the altitude of
which is absolute temperature.
EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION – Amount of water in kg. that would be
evaporated from water at 100°C into steam at 100°C and 1.03 kscm,
by the heat put into steam actually evaporated in one hour by 1 kg of
fuel.
EVAPORATION – Process by which a liquid changes into a vapour as a

result of absorbing heat.
EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER – Combines the principles of forced
circulation convection currents with the ability of a vapourizing liquid
to absorb heat.
EXTERNAL LATENT HEAT – When vapourization takes place, the amount
of heat required because of the work in pushing back the atmosphere
to make room for the steam.
EXTRINSIC PROPERTIES – Also called extensive properties, are those
properties which are dependent on the mass of the system. Examples
are volume, weight and total energy.
FACTOR OF EVAPORATION – A quantity which when multiplied by
the amount of steam generated at a given pressure from water at a given
temperature, gives the equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C.
FLOW WORK – The product PV (pressure and specific volume) represents
flow work in a steady flow system.
FORCED CONVECTION – Circulation of the fluid is made positive by
some mechanical means such as a pump for water or a fan for hot gases.
FORCED DRAFT COOLING TOWER – Cools water by mechanically
forcing air through the water spray in the tower.
FREE EXPANSION – is a process wherein a fluid from a pressure chamber
expands into a vacuum chamber through an orifice of large dimensions.
FREEZING POINT – The temperature at which water turns into ice (0°C
at sea level).
FROM AND AT 100°C – In boiler operation, it is an evaporation that
would be the equivalent of the actual evaporation when the feed water
enters the boiler at 100°C and steam is formed at 100°C, at standard
atmospheric pressure.
FROSTING EVAPORATORS – Those evaporators which always operate
at temperature below 0°C.
FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSIONS – Internationally accepted units are
time, length, mass, force and temperature.
GAUGE PRESSURE – Pressure above or below atmospheric pressure.
GAY LUSSAC LAW – The volume of a gas will vary directly as the absolute
temperature, if the pressure remains constant.
GASES – are substances in which the molecules move freely and exist in an
unbound state. Gases can be compressed easily because of the large empty
space available between the molecules.
HEAT – A form of energy and is due to the motion of the molecules of
which all substances are composed. Unit of heat is kilocalorie.
HEAT OF COMPRESSION – Increase of temperature brought about by
compression of air or air fuel mixture.
HEAT OF CONDENSATION – The heat that is removed per kilogram of
vapour to cause it to condense. It has the same numerical value as the
heat of vapourization.
HEAT ENGINE – It is an energy transformer. It transforms heat energy into
mechanical energy and render the latter available for doing useful work.
HEAT PUMP – is a device which extracts heat from low temperature
surroundings and sends it to a high temperature body, while operating in a
cycle. Heat pump maintains a body or system at a temperature higher than
the temperature of the surroundings, with the work supplied to it.
HEAT SINK – A means for disposing of unwanted heat, usually by using it
to increase the temperature of water, which is then run to waste.
HEAT SOURCE – Supplier of heat to the working agent of a heat engine-a
fraction of the heat supplied being changed into work.
HEAT TRANSFER – Movement of heat energy from one place to another
(warmer to cooler portion).
HETEROGENEOUS SYSTEM – is a system which is made of more than
one phase.
HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEM – is a system consisting of a single phase.
HYPERBOLIC PROCESS – is one in which a gas is heated in such a way that
at any instant its pressure multiplied by its volume remains constant.
IDEAL GAS – is one which will obey all the gas laws, under all conditions
of temperature and pressure. For an ideal gas, the internal energy and
enthalpy are functions of temperature alone.
INDICATED HORSE POWER – The actual power developed or used
within a cylinder as calculated from the indicator diagram.
INERT GAS – A gas which under normal conditions does not react with or
combine with other substances for example, argon, helium, neon,
krypton, xenon.
INTERNAL ENERGY – is the energy arising from the motion and from
configuration of the internal particles (atoms and molecules). It is the
energy stored in the gas and is used for raising its temperature. v = CvT.,
∆u = Cv (T2 – T1).
INTRINSIC PROPERTIES – also called intensive properties, are those
properties which are independent of the mass of the system. Example
are pressure, temperature and density.
ISENTROPIC PROCESS – which is called reversible adiabatic process is
one in which no heat is supplied and work done is at the expense of
internal energy. Law followed is Pvγ = constant.
ISOLATED SYSTEM – is a special case of the closed system which will not
be influenced by the surrounding. In this system, no mass transfer, no
energy transfer occur. Work and heat cannot cross the boundary of the
system.
ISOTHERM – The line drawn through points or areas of similar temperature.
ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION or COMPRESSION – The expansion or
compression of a gas at constant temperature, that is with the gas
temperature remaining the same during the process.
JOULE’S LAW OF INTERNAL ENERGY – The internal energy of a given
quantity of a gas depends only on the temperature of the gas. As
temperature changes, the internal energy also changes.
KELVIN PLANK STATEMENT – It is impossible to construct an engine
undergoing a cyclic process, which will convert all the heat supplied to
it into an equivalent amount of work.
KILO PASCALS (kPa) – Measurement of pressure in the metric system 1
kilo pascal is approximately equal to 6.895 pounds per square inch.
KINETIC ENERGY – Energy due to momentum, that is the energy of a
moving body, which is equivalent to saying, dynamic inertia. The kinetic
energy of a moving body is the work which the body is capable of
performing against a resistance before it is brought to rest, that is, it
equals the work which has brought it from its state of rest to its actual
velocity.
LATENT HEAT – The quantity of heat required to change the state or

condition under which a substance exists without changing its
temperature.
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION – The amount of heat which must be added
to one kilogram of material to change its state from a solid to a liquid
or which must be subtracted from one kilogram of a liquid to change it
to a solid.
LATENT HEAT (internal) – The amount of heat that the water will absorb
(latent heat minus heat equivalent of work of evaporation), at the boiling
point without a change in temperature.
LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURIZATION – Amount of heat to be added
to (or subtracted from) one kilogram of the refrigerant to cause it to
vapourize (or condense). Also, the amount of heat energy in a gas which
is in addition to that found in the liquid at the same temperature.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY – States that energy can neither
be created nor destroyed. However, it can be stored in various forms
and can be transferred from one form to another. In other words, the
total energy of a body or substance always remains constant.
LIQUIDS – are substances in which the molecules are loosely bounded. A
definite volume is maintained by the bond forces, but can change the
shape according to the shape of the container.
MATTER – General name for all material substances, gaseous, liquid or
solid forming the earth and its surrounding atmosphere.
MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE – The difference between the mean forward
pressure and the mean back pressure acting on a moving piston during
a cycle of operation.
MECHANICAL CYCLE – is one wherein during the various processes, the
properties of the working fluid change.
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY – Ratio of mechanical energy available at
the brake or flywheel to the mechanical energy put into the moving
mechanism at the piston of the engine.
MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT – 1 kcal is equal to 1427 Mtkg
of mechanical energy.
MOLE OF GAS – Quantity of gas, the weight of which is equal to the
molecular weight in pounds.
MOLAR HEAT – is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature

of one mole of a substance through one degree.
MOLLIER DIAGRAM – A graphical representation of the properties of a
fluid in which enthalpy is plotted as abscissa and pressure as ordinate.
NATURAL CONVECTION – Circulation or the transfer of fluid due to a
difference in density resulting from temperature changes.
NATURAL DRAFT COOLING TOWER – Cooling tower which cools
water by moving air at low velocities through the tower, without the
aid of any mechanical means.
NON FLOW PROCESS – It is the one in which there is no mass interaction
across the system boundaries during the process. This occurs in a closed system.
NTP – The normal temperature and pressure refer to the conditions of
temperature 0°C (273 K) and pressure of 760 mm of mercury.
OPEN SYSTEM – It has no closed boundary, but has one or more openings.
Fluid may enter or leave the system, it undergoes thermodynamic process,
while moving through the system.
PARALLEL FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER – A heat exchanger in which
the warm and cool fluids flow in the same direction but separated from
one another.
PERFECT GAS – Gas which behaves in accordance with the gas law PV =
MRT, where P-absolute pressure, V-volume, M-mass, T-absolute
temperature and R-constant for the particular gas depending on its
molecular weight.
PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINE OF FIRST KIND – is a machine
which will give continoues work without taking any energy from other
system or surrounding.
PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINE OF SECOND KIND – is a machine
which abstracts heat continuously from a reservoir and converts it
completely into work or 100% efficient engine.
PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINE OF THIRD KIND – is applied to
devices that, once set in motion, continue in motion for an indefinitely
long time without slowing down.
PHASE OF A SUBSTANCE – It refers to a quantity of matter which is
homogeneous or uniform throughout its physical structure and chemical
composition.
PHASE DIAGRAM – is a pressure temperature diagram showing more than

one of the saturation lines (liquid-vapour, liquid-solid, solid-vapour
and other of a pure substance).
PATH FUNCTIONS – depend on which path is followed between the
states 1 and 2. Examples are heat, work, internal energy and entropy.
POINT FUNCTIONS – are the properties of a system at a state.
POLYTROPIC PROCESS – follows the law Pvn = constant. In this process,
heat is supplied in such a way there is some work done by the gas (i.e.,
during expansion) and there is also a change in internal energy.
PROCESS – It is the transformation of a system from one state to another.
PROPERTY OF A FLUID – is its characteristic such as pressure, volume,
temperature, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy which are measurable
directly or indirectly.
POTENTIAL ENERGY – Energy possessed by a substance by virtue of its
position with respect to a datum.
POWER – The rate at which work is done, i.e., 1 HP = 4500 Mtkg/ minute.
PRESSURE – As defined by Rankine-A force of the nature or a thrust,
distributed over a surface measured as kg/sqcm.
PURE SUBSTANCE – is any material of single chemical structure or of
homogeneous and invariant chemical structure.
QUALITY OF STEAM – Refers indirectly the amount of water or
unevaporated moisture in steam.
QUASI-STATIC PROCESS – is a process which is carried out in such a
manner that at every instant the system departs only infinitesimally
from the thermodynamic equilibrium state.
R – An experimentally determined constant which is equal to the mechanical
work done by the expansion of unit weight of a perfect gas at a constant
pressure while heat is added to increase its temperature through one
degree.
RADIATION – Continuous form of interchange of heat energy from one
body to another by means of electromagnetic waves without causing a
change in the temperature of the medium between the two bodies
involved. These energy waves may be reflected, penetrate the material
or be absorbed.
REAL GAGES – are those that deviate from the characteristic gas relation,
Pv = RT.
REFLECTIVITY – Ability of a material to reflect radiant heat.
REFRIGERATOR – Maintains a body at a temperature lower than that of
the surroundings while operating in a cycle. External work is supplied
for realizing it.
RENAULT’S LAW – The two specific heats of a gas Cv and Cp do not change
with the temperature and pressure.
REVERSIBLE PROCESS – Any process performed so that the system and
all its surroundings can be restored to their initial states by performing
the process in reverse.
RUDOLF CLAUSIUS STATEMENT – Heat can flow from a hot body to
a cold body unaided, but it cannot flow from a cold body to a hotter
body without the expenditure or supply of mechanical work.
SATURATION TEMPERATURE – Temperature of the liquid surface
corresponding to the pressure of the vapour in contact with it.
SATURATED PHASE – is any phase of a substance existing under saturated
conditions, wherein two or more phases of a pure substance can exist
together in equilibrium.
SATURATED STEAM – Steam, as it is generated from water, just barely
on the steam side of the fence.
SATURATED VAPOUR – Vapour whose temperature and pressure are in
accordance with the temperature vapour pressure relationship for the
particular substance. Vapour in contact with its liquid is saturated.
SECONDARY DIMENSIONS – are those quantities which are described
using primary dimensions.
SEMI-PERFECT GAS – is one which follows the ideal gas relations with
specific heats being functions of temperature.
SENSIBLE HEAT – Heat energy that causes a change of temperature of a
solid, liquid or gas, changes the speed with which molecules move.
When unit weight of a substance is heated by one degree to gain, the
sensible heat is equal to the specific heat.
SENSIBLE HEAT OF WATER – Heat added to one kg of water from 0°C
to the boiling point at the given pressure. Also called ENTHALPY OF
WATER.
SOLIDS – are substances in which the molecules are closely packed and may
not move freely. Molecules can only vibrate about a mean position.
Very large force is required to change the shape of a solid substance.
SPECIFIC HEAT – The ratio of the amount of heat which will raise the
temperature of a given weight of a substance by one degree to the
amount of heat which will produce the same raise in temperature in the
same weight of water.
SPECIFIC HEAT OF SUPERHEATED STEAM – Amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of superheated steam, at constant
pressure by 1°C.
SPECIFIC PROPERTY – is the value of any extensive property divided by
the mass of the system. This is an intensive property, e.g., specific volume,
specific weight.
SPHEROIDAL STATE – The condition of a liquid, as water, when being
thrown on a highly heated metal surface, it rolls about in spheroidal
drops or masses, at a temperature several degrees below ebullition and
without actual contact with the heated surface. This phenomenon is
due to the repulsive force of heat and the intervention of a cushion of
vapour.
STATE OF A SYSTEM – refers to the unique condition of the system at
any particular moment. The state is indicated by the properties such as
temperature, volume, pressure, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy.
These are point functions.
STEADY FLOW SYSTEM – is an open system in which the rate of mass
transfer and energy transfer remain constant with respect to time.
STEAM – The vapour of water. It is a colourless expansive invisible gas.
STEAM TABLES – Tables containing values of various properties of saturated
steam such as boiling point, specific volume, sensible heat, latent heat
and total heat calculated for a wide range of pressures.
STEADY FLOW PROCESS – is a flow process wherein the conditions
within the control volume do not vary with time.
STORED ENERGY – is the energy which is contained by the medium within
the system boundaries. Examples are potential energy and internal energy.
STP – The standard temperature and pressure refer to the conditions of
temperature 15°C (288 K) and pressure 760 mm of mercury.
SUBCOOLED LIQUID – is a liquid existing at a temperature lower than

its saturation temperature (or, in other words, at a pressure higher than
its saturation pressure).
SUPERHEAT – Addition of heat to a fluid after it has completely vapourized.
In this situation, temperature increases but pressure does not.
SUPERHEATED VAPOUR – Vapour removed from contact with its liquid
and at a temperature higher than that which corresponds to its pressure
as indicated by the temperature – pressure vapour relationship for that
particular substance.
SUPERHEATED STEAM – Steam at a temperature higher than the
saturation temperature for the given pressure.
SURROUNDING – is everything outside the boundary which may influence
the behaviour of the system. Transfer of mass and energy may take
place between the system and boundary.
SYSTEM IN EQUILIBRIUM – means it does not undergo any change on
its own accord.
SYSTEM IN CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM – is an isolated system which
may contain substances that can react with one another chemically, but
all these chemical reactions cease after a certain time.
SYSTEM IN MECHANICAL EQUILIBRIUM – is an isolated system, when
left to itself, may change with time all its properties such as pressure,
elastic stress etc., but these changes may cease after a certain time.
SYSTEM IN THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM – is an isolated system, wherein
there may be variations of temperature from point to point, but these
variations vanish after a certain time.
SYSTEM IN THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM – is one which is in
mechanical equilibrium, thermal equilibrium and chemical equilibrium.
TEMPERATURE – A measure of the intensity of heat in a substance with
reference to a fixed reference point and of its ability to pass its heat into
anything at a lower temperature than itself.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY – Ability to a material to allow the passage
of heat. Stated as the number of kilocalories that can flow in one hour
through a block of material, one square meter in area and one meter
thick with one degree centigrade difference in temperature between the
opposite surfaces.
THERMAL GRADIENT – The slope of the temperature curve produced

by measuring the temperature at various points across a body or heated
section.
THERMODYNAMICS – Study of energy, heat and work, properties of
media employed and the processes involved.
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM – is any space or any matter or group of
matter within a prescribed boundary, to which attention is directed for
the purpose of analysis.
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE – is said to occur when a working fluid of a
system undergoes a number of operations and processes which take place in
a certain order and finally return the fluid to the initial state itself.
THERMODYNAMICS – ZEROTH LAW – That two systems having equal
temperatures with a third system also have equal temperatures with
each other.
THERMODYNAMICS – FIRST LAW – In ordinary processes, matter can
neither be created nor destroyed. Energy can take different forms but
cannot be created or destroyed.
THERMODYNAMICS – SECOND LAW – There is a definite limit to the
amount of mechanical energy that can be obtained from heat energy.
THERMOELECTRIC INDICATORS – Temperature measuring
instruments which operate on the principle that minute quantities of
electric current may be produced by heating two dissimilar metals which
are joined at one end.
THERMOSTAT – Operating control which reacts to temperature.
THROTTLING PROCESS – is one that occurs when a gas or vapour is
expanded through an aperture of minute dimensions, such as a slightly
opened valve or a narrow throat. In this process, no heat transfer takes
place, no work is done.
TOTAL HEAT – Sum of the sensible heat and latent heat. Also called enthaply
of steam or vapour.
TRANSIT ENERGY – is that energy which crosses the system boundaries.
Examples are heat, work, velocity energy and electrical energy.
TRIPPLE POINT – The temperature and pressure at which a substance can
exist simultaneously in solid, liquid and vapour forms.
TUBE AND FIN RADIATOR CORE – One type of radiator core,

consisting of tubes to which cooling fins are attached, water flows
through the tubes.
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION – Radiation of short wave length or high
frequency, just below the X-ray range, which come from the SUN and
the electric arc. These may cause eye damage and skin burns unless the
correct precautions are followed.
UNIVERSE – is the system and the surrounding put together.
UNSTEADY FLOW SYSTEM – is an open system in which the rate of
mass transfer and energy transfer vary with respect to time.
VACUUM – A space devoid of matter, that is, a space in which the pressure
is zero absolute.
VAPOUR – A gaseous condition of a substance near its point of liquefaction.
VAPOURIZATION – Change of state from liquid to vapour or gas.
VAPOUR PRESSURE – Pressure exerted by the vapour of any particular
liquid on the containing vessel, as a result of the molecules near its
surface freeing themselves from the attraction of their neighbours and
flying off into space. Its magnitude depends solely on the temperature
of the liquid surface.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY – The ratio of the volume of gas actually
pumped by a compressor or pump to the theoretical displacement of
the piston of the compressor or pump or reciprocating IC engine.
WEIGHT – It refers to the force exerted by gravity on the given mass. Weight
is proportional to mass, but the proportionality factor is different at
different locations.
WET STEAM – Steam containing intermingled moisture, mist or spray.
WORK – The overcoming of resistance through a certain distance by the
expenditure of energy.
WORKING AGENT – Substance in a heat engine which alternately takes
in and rejects heat, expanding and contracting when doing so, and
overcoming the resistance opposing these changes.
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS – States that if two systems
are separately in equilibrium with a third system, then the two systems
will be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
CHAPTER
16
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
ACCELERATOR – Device for rapid control of the speed of an engine, for

quick opening and closing of the throttle which regulates the quantity
of air fuel mixture into the engine cylinder.
ACHESON GRAPHITE – That made from coke in an electric furnance.
ACTIVATED CARBON – A highly absorbent form of carbon used to
remove odors and toxic substances from gaseous emissions or to remove
dissolved organic matter from waste water.
ADDITIVE – A substance added to fuel, or oil or grease which improves
the properties of the same.
ADIABATIC FLAME TEMPERATURE – The maximum possible
temperature attained by the products of reaction, when the reaction
goes to completion and all the heat released is used to heat up the
products.
AERATION TEST BURNER – Apparatus by which the combustion
characteristics of commercial gases can be correlated and calibrated.
AEROSOL – A particle of solid or liquid matter that can remain suspended
in the air because of its small size. Particulates under 1 micron in diameter
are called aerosols.
AFTER BOIL – Boiling of the fuel in the carburettor or coolant in the
engine immediately after the engine is stopped.
AFTER BURNING – In an internal combustion engine, the persistence of
the combustion process beyond the period proper to the working cycle,
i.e., into the expansion period.
AFTER BURNER – In an automobile engine, a type of exhaust manifold

that burns the hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide remaining in the
exhaust gas.
AIR ASPIRATOR SYSTEM – An air injection system using a valve opened
and closed by pulses in the exhaust system.
AIR FUEL MIXTURE – Air and fuel travelling to the combustion chamber
after being mixed by the carburettor.
AIR FUEL RATIO – Ratio (by weight) between air and fuel that makes up
engine fuel mixture.
AIR INJECTION SYSTEM – A system which injects air into the exhaust
manifold or thermal reactor so that the combustion of the carbon
monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust can be completed.
AIR MASS METERING – In some fuel injection systems, fuel metering is
controlled primarily by engine speed and the amount of air actually
entering the engine.
AIR POLLUTION – Contamination of earths atmosphere by various natural
and man made pollutants such as smoke, gases, dust etc.
ALCOHOL – Volatile liquid fuel consisting wholly or partly, of alcohol,
able to withstand high compression ratios without detonation.
ANTHRACITE COALS – Slow burning coals which yield very little ash,
moisture and less than 10 per cent volatiles, generally used in closed stoves.
ANILINE POINT – The lowest temperature at which an oil is completely
miscible with an equal volume of aniline.
ANTIBACKFIRE VALVE – Valve used in air injection reaction cexhaust
emission control system to prevent backfiring during the period
immediately following sudden decleration.
ANTIKNOCK – In engine fuels, that property which opposes knocking
i.e., autoignition.
ANTIKNOCK COMPOUND – An additive put into gasoline to suppress
knocking or detonation e.g., Tetra ethyl lead.
ANTIPERCOLATOR – Device for venting vapours from main discharge
tube, or well, of a carburettor.
APIEZON OILS – The residue of almost zero vapour pressure left by vacuum
distillation of petroleum products.
Fuels and Combustion 197
API GRAVITY – The American Petroleum Institute (API) has established

the formula for calculating the specific gravity of a fuel or oil as Degree
API= ((141.5/specific gravity at 60/60 degree F)–131.5). The symbol
60/60 degree F is interpreted as the ratio of the weight of a given volume
of oil at 60 degree F to the weight of the same volume of water at 60
degree F.
ASH – An inorganic non-combustible residue obtained by combustion of
an oil or fuel in the presence of air.
ASH AND SLAG – Impurities that do not burn and usually troublesome
elements in coal fired boilers.
ASH FREE BASIS – When fuels are delivered on an ash free basis, it means
that the percentage of the ash has been deducted and the other
constituents have their percentages recalculated on 100 per cent total
without the ash.
ATMOSPHERIC GAS BURNER SYSTEM – A natural draught burner
injector, in which the momentum of a gas stream projected from an
orifice into the injector throat inspirates from the atmosphere a part of
the air required for combustion.
ATOMIZATION – The spraying of a liquid through a nozzle so that the
liquid is broken into a very fine mist.
ATOMIZER – A nozzle through which oil fuel is sprayed into the combustion
chamber of an oil engine or boiler furnace. It breaks up the fuel into a
fine mist so as to ensure good dispersion and combustion.
AUTOIGNITION – The self-ignition or spontaneous combustion of a fuel
when introduced into the heated charge in the cylinder of a compression
ignition engine.
AUTOMATIC CHOKE – A carburettor choke device (valve) that
automatically positions itself in accordance with the carburettor needs
or engine temperature.
BACKFIRE (exhaust system) – Passage of unburned air fuel mixture into
the exhaust system where it is ignited by some hot spot and causes a
loud explosion.
BALANCED DRAFT – A boiler using both forced draft fan and induced
draft fan, can be regulated and balanced in the amount of air and flue
gases handled so that the furnace pressure is almost atmospheric.
BAGASSE – A fuel produced as a by product of the abstraction of juice

from sugar cane. The dried cane (fibrous residue) is usually fed into a
specially designed furnance by means of overfeed stokers.
BENCH – The name applied to a complete plant for the manufacture of
coal gas. Also called RETORT BENCH.
BENZOL – Crude benzene, used as a motor spirit, generally mixed with
petrol, and valued for its antiknock properties.
BIOGAS – Obtained by fermentation in the sewage disposal system, or by
fermentation of cattle waste, farm waste etc.
BIOSPHERE – The portion of earth and its atmosphere that can support life.
BLAST FURNANCE GAS – A gas of low calorific value, a by product of
iron smelting due to burning of coke in the furnance with limited air,
used for preheating the blast, for steam raising etc. It may contain up to
30% carbon monoxide.
BLAST MAIN – The main blast air pipe supplying air to a furnace.
BLOW BY – Leakage of unburned air fuel mixture and some burned gases
past the piston rings into the crankcase during the compression and
combustion strokes.
BLOW TORCH EFFECT – In gas or oil burning furnaces, when the flame
impinges on any surface, such as a tube or refractory wall, that surface is
burned as by a blow torch. This is a combustion condition to be avoided
as destructive to the surface.
BLUE WATER GAS – A mixture of approximately equal proportions of
carbon monoxide and hydrogen made by passing steam over incandescent
coke in special generators.
BOILING POINT – The temperature at which a liquid begins to boil.
BOMB CALORIEMETER – An apparatus used for determining the calorific
values of fuels. The bomb consists of a thick walled steel vessel in which
a weighed quantity of fuel is ignited in an atmosphere of compressed
oxygen. The bomb is immersed in a known volume of water, from the
rise of temperature of water the calorific value is calculated.
BOTTLED GAS – LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) compressed into strong
metal containers. Gas when confined in tank, under pressure, is in the
liquid form.
BRIQUETS – Coherent masses of uniform size made by the application of

pressure to any powdery material placed in a suitable mould with or
without a binder.
BUTANE – A hydrocarbon gas formed synthetically, by the action of zinc or
ethyl iodide. Petroleum gas, that is liquid, when under pressure. Often
used as engine fuel in trucks.
CALORIE – The amount of heat required to raise one gram of water through
1°C i.e., from 17 to 18°C. Calorie is unit of heat.
CALORIFIC INTENSITY – The maximum flame temperature attained
when the fuel is burnt.
CALORIFIC VALVE – The heat value of a fuel, expressed in either BTU per
pound or CHU per pound or kilocalories/kg. The amount of heat
produced by burning unit weight of fuel.
CALORIEMETER – Measuring instrument used to determine the amount
of heat produced when a substance is burned, also friction and chemical
change produce heat.
CARBON – One of the non-metallic elements constituting fuel and
lubricating oil.
CARBON DEPOSIT – A black, hard or soft deposit left on engine parts by
the combustion of fuel. Carbon forms on pistons, rings, plugs, valve
heads etc., inhibiting their action.
CARBONDIOXIDE – A colourless, odourless gas which results when
hydrocarbon or carbon is burned completely.
CARBONIZE – Building up of carbon on objects such as spark plug, piston
head etc., of an engine.
CARBON MONOXIDE – A colourless, odourless, tasteless, poisonous gas
found in engine exhaust. Formed when carbon or hydrocarbons are
burned incompletely.
CARBURETED WATER GAS – An artificial gas formed by passing steam
through a bed of glowing coke and thereafter enriching the gas so formed
with petroleum vapour.
CATALYTIC CONVERTER – A muffler like device for use in an exhaust
system that converts harmful gases in the exhaust into harmless gases
by promoting a chemical reaction between a catalyst and the pollutants.
CETANE NUMBER – Rating of ignition quality or performance characteristic

of diesel fuel. A high cetane number fuel ignites more easily at lower
temperature than a low cetane number fuel.
CHARCOAL – Product obtained by heating wood out of contact with air.
CHARCOAL CANISTER – A container filled with activated charcoal used
to trap gasoline vapour from the fuel tank and carburettor while the
engine is off.
CHEMICAL CHANGE – A change which alters the composition of the
molecules of a substance producing new substances with new properties.
CLOUD POINT – The temperature of a liquid (fuel or lubricant) at which
a haze or a cloud first appears in a sample of oil, when cooled in a
prescribed manner.
COAL – A firm, brittle, sedimentary, combustible rock derived from vegetable
debries which have undergone a complex series of chemical and physical
changes during the course of many million years.
COAL GAS – A fuel formed by the distillation of coal, usually in a retort or
a coke oven.
COEFFICIENT OF HAZE – A measurement of visibility interference in
the atmosphere.
COKE – A fused cellular porous structure that remains after the free moisture
and the major portion of the volatile matter have been distilled from coal.
CAKING COALS – Coals that become soft under the usual furnace
temperatures and merge into undesirable masses of coke. The coal that
becomes soft, melts and solidifies into a more or less solid mass which
further hardens on heating out of contact with air.
COLLOIDAL FUEL – A mixture of fuel oil and powdered coal.
COMBUSTION – Process involved during quick burning. Release of
chemical energy into heat energy occurs during combustion.
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY – is the ratio of the (heat) energy liberated
to that which could be liberated under ideal conditions. Quantity of
CO2 and H2O in the exhaust indicate energy liberated, whereas the
quantity of H2, CO and CH4 indicate unliberated energy.
CRACKING – The process of breaking of heavy molecules into lighter
hydrocarbons.
COMPRESSION IGNITION – Ignition of fuel through the heat of

compression as in a diesel engine.
COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS – usually assumes the from of compressed
methane, and is suitable for obtaining ultra low emissions from
combustion engines. Soot production is virtually zero.
COMPOUND – A combination of two or more ingredients mixed together.
CONSTANT PRESSURE COMBUSTION – Combustion which occurs
without a change in pressure. In an engine, this is obtained by the slower
rate of burning than with constant volume combustion.
CRUDE OIL – Petroleum as it comes from the oil well (raw or refined state).
It forms the basis of gasoline, engine oil, diesel oil, kerosene etc.
DETONATION – An uncontrolled instantaneous second explosion in a
spark ignition engine, after the spark occurs, with excessively rapid
burning of a portion of the compressed air fuel mixture (end charge
almost exploding) resulting in a spark knock, or pinging noise.
DIESEL INDEX – A rating of fuel according to its ignition qualities. The
higher the diesel index number, the better the ignition quality of the fuel.
DIMETHYLETHER – is a synthetic product with a high cetane number,
producing little soot and reduced nitrogen oxide when combusted in
diesel engines.
DISTILLATION – Heating a liquid, and then catching and condensing the
vapours given off by the heating process.
DRAFT – The differential pressure in a furnace to ensure the flow of gases
out of the furnace and flow of air into the furnace.
DUST – Fine grain particles light enough to be suspended in air.
ECOSPHERE – The layer of earth and troposphere inhabited by or suitable
for existence of living organisms.
EFFLUENT – Waste material discharged into the environment, treated or
untreated.
EGR SYSTEM – Exhaust gas recirculation system. It sends part of the exhaust
gas back through the engine by way of the carburettor or intake manifold,
which reduces the amount of NOx that is formed by an engine.
ELECTOSTATIC PRECIPITATOR – An air pollution control device in
which solid or liquid particulates in a gas stream are charged as they pass
through an electric field and precipitated on a collection surface.
ELUTRIATION – A process of separating lighter particles from heavier

particles by washing solid waste with a slowly moving upward stream
of fluid that carried the lighter particles with it.
EMISSION CONTROLS – A term applied to any device or modification
added onto, or designed into a motor vehicle for the purpose of
controlling a source of air pollution emission.
ETHANOL – Ethyl alcohol produced by east fermentation of a variety of
carbohydrates such as saccharin (sugar canes, sugar beets, molasses and
fruit juices), starch (cereals and potatoes) or cellulose (wood waste,
sulphite liquor).
ETHYL GASOLINE – Gasoline to which ethyl fluid has been added to
improve its resistance to knocking. Slows down burning rate and thereby
creates a smooth pressure curve that will allow the gasoline to be used
in high compression engines.
EVAPORATIVE EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEM – A system which
prevents the escape of gasoline vapours from the fuel tank or
carburettor float bowl to the atmosphere while the engine is off.
The vapours are stored in a canister, or in the crankcase until the
engine is started.
EXCESS AIR – Air present in the cylinder over and above that which is
theoretically necessary to burn the fuel.
EXHAUST GAS – The products of combustion coming out from an internal
combustion engine.
EXHAUST GAS ANALYZER – A device for sampling the exhaust gas from
an engine to determine the amounts of pollutants in the exhaust gas.
This determines combustion efficiency.
FLAME DETECTOR – A device that monitors the flame in a furnace that
is burning oil, gas, or pulverized coal fuel. Failure of the flame results in
a signal and the actuation of various protective controls on the fuel feed
to prevent an explosion.
FLAME SAFEGUARD SYSTEM – An arrangement of flame detection
system, interlocks and relays, which will sense the presence of a proper
flame in a furnace and cause fuel to be shut off to the furnace if a
hazardous (improper flame or combustion) condition develops.
FLASH POINT – It is the temperature at which the quantities of vapour

which a combustible fuel emits into the atmosphere are sufficient to
allow a spark to ignite the vapour air mixture above the fluid.
FLUE DUST – Solid particles (smaller than 100 microns) carried in the
products of combustion.
FLUE GAS ANALYZER – Device which measures the percentages of volume
of carbondioxide, carbon monoxide and oxygen in the flue gas of a boiler.
FLY ASH – Combustion ash so fine that is carried up and into the atmosphere
by the movement of the flue gases. It can become neighbourhood
nuisance by settling on surfaces in the area after it looses its velocity.
FOG – Suspended liquid particles formed by condensation of vapour.
FORCED DRAFT FAN – The fan that pushes or forces air into the furnace,
usually at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure.
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION – A process of separation on the molecular
basis or on the basis of the boiling point of various fractions.
FREE LIQUIDS – Liquids which readily separate from the solid portion of
a waste under ambient temperature and pressure.
FUEL – The substance that is burned to produce heat and create motion in
an engine or heat substances. Any combustible substance.
FUEL CALORIEMETER – A meter (also called oxygen bomb) to determine
the heating value of 1 kg of fuel by burning a sample of the fuel under
controlled conditions.
FUGITIVE DUST – Particulate matter composed of soil which is
uncontaminated by pollutants resulting from industrial activity. Fugitive
dust may include emissions from haul roads, wind erosion of exposed
soil surfaces and soil storage piles, and other activities in which soil is
either removed, stored, transported, and redistributed, also solid air
borne particulate matter emitted from any source other than through a
stack.
FUME – Any kind of noxious vapour arising from a process of combustion or
chemical reactions. Includes smoke, odorous materials, metallic dust.
FUME AFTERBURNERS – Units designed to consume combustible fumes
by means of a direct fired combustion chamber through which the
fumes must pass on their way to the stack and the atmosphere.
FURNACE EXPLOSION – The ignition and almost instantaneous explosion

of highly inflammable gas, vapour or dust accumulated in a boiler setting.
GAS – A state of matter, neither solid nor liquid which has neither definite
shape nor definite volume. Air is a mixture of several gases.
GASOLINE – A liquid blend of hydrocarbons, obtained from petroleum
crude oil, used as the fuel for most automobile SI engines.
GRINDABILITY – A descriptive term of a characteristic of coal that is
important to pulverized coal systems.
HEATING VALUE OF A FUEL – The heat liberated by the complete and
rapid burning of a fuel per unit weight or volume of the fuel. Also
called calorific value of the fuel.
HIGHER HEAT VALUE – A standard recommended by the ASME, the
higher heat value of a fuel includes the heat value of the hydrogen in the
fuel. The heating value indicated by a fuel caloriemeter.
HIGH TEST GASOLINE – A term referring to the octane rating of a fuel.
A high test fuel has a high octane rating.
HOGGED FUEL – Wood that has been chipped and shredded, usually by
a machine called a “hog”.
HYDROCARBON – A compound made of elements of hydrogen and
carbon atoms. Gasoline, diesel oil are blends of different hydrocarbons
refined from crude oil.
IGNITION TEMPERATURE – The temperature at which the heat that is
generated by the reaction between air and fuel vapour, is faster than that
is lost to the surroundings, and combustion thus becomes self propelling.
Below this point, the gas air mixture will not burn freely.
IGNITION QUALITY OF DIESELS – is indicated by cetane number. It
is the percentage of cetane by volume, in a mixture of cetane (C16 H34)
and alpha methyl naphthalene which will exhibit the same ignition
characteristic of the fuel under test when tested in a standard engine,
under a set of standard test conditions.
INCINERATION – The controlled process in which the combustible solid,
liquid or gaseous wastes are burned and changed into non-combustible
gases.
INCINERATOR – Any furnace used in the process of burning waste for the
primary purpose of reducing the volume of the waste by removing
combustible matter.
INDUCED DRAFT FAN – The fan that draws the gases out of the furnace
by creating a partial vacuum on the suction side of the fan.
INFRARED GAS ANALYZER – A non-dispersive infrared gas analyzer used
to measure very small quantities of the pollutants contained in the
exhaust gas.
KEROSENE – This petroleum product is a liquid fuel having an average
latent heat of vapourization of 105-110 BTU lb and the specific heat
of 0.50, sometimes called COAL OIL.
KNOCK (engine) – In an engine, a rapping or hammering noise resulting
from excessively rapid burning of the compressed air fuel charge.
LIGNITE – A coal of high moisture content and low calorific value, generally
less than 8300 BTU/lb. May require predrying before being used as a
fuel.
LIQUID ASH REMOVAL SYSTEM – An arrangement of piping by which
molten ash is removed continuously or intermittently, as desired, from
the bottom of a furnace. The operating medium is usually compressed
air with pneumatic controls.
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG) – A gas fuel that is stored in
liquid form and is converted into gas as it leaves the storage tank by a
pressure regulator that steps down the storage pressure on the liquid at
the tank outlet and thereby permits the liquid to assume its normal
gaseous state at the existing temperature and reduced pressure.
LONG FLAME BURNER – An oil or gas burner in which the mixture of
fuel and air is delayed long enough to produce a long flame from the
burner nozzle. Can be a source of trouble if the flame impinges on
either refractory or tube surfaces.
LOWER HEATING VALUE – Net heat liberated per kg of fuel after the
heat necessary to vapourize and superheat the steam formed from the
hydrogen (and from the fuel) has been liberated.
LOW LEAD FUEL – Gasoline which is low in tetraethyl lead (approximately
0.5 gm per gallon).
MECHANICAL DRAFT – Draft produced artificially by means of forced

or induced draft fans.
METHANOL – Methyl alcohol produced from coal by its liquifaction, by
pyrolysis, or by its reaction with high pressure hydrogen.
NATURAL DRAFT – Draft produced by a chimney, by a column of hot
gases existing inside the chimney.
NATURAL GAS – Gas obtained from petroleum mines.
NO x – Oxides of nitrogen, a byproduct of combustion within the
combustion chamber at high temperature and under heavy load. A basic
air pollutant.
NOx CONTROL – Any type of device, or system, used to reduce the amount
of NOx produced by an engine.
NO LEAD FUEL – Gasoline to which there has been no intentional addition
of lead compounds.
OCTANE RATING – The measure of antiknock property of gasoline. The
higher the octane rating, (OCTANE NUMBER), the more resistant
the gasoline is to knocking or detonation and better the quality: Higher
compression engines require higher octane gas.
OCTANE NUMBER OF A FUEL – is the percentage by volume of iso-
octane in a mixture of iso-octane (C8 H18) and n-heptane (C7 H16)
which will exhibit the same antiknock characteristic of the fuel under
test when tested in a standard CFR variable compression ratio engine,
under a set of standard test conditions.
OIL BURNER – Any device wherein oil fuel is vapourized or so called
atomized and mixed with air in proper proportion for combustion.
PARTICULATES – Small particles of lead and other substances occurring as
solid matter in the exhaust gas.
PEAT – A substance of vegetable origin always found more or less saturated
with water in swamps and bogs.
PETROLEUM – Crude oil as it comes out of the ground, which consists of
83-87 per cent carbon, and 10-14 per cent hydrogen, plus traces of
oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. From the crude oil, gasoline, diesel,
lubricating oil and other products are refined.
PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG – The result of sunlight reacting with

hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere.
PING – The sound resulting from sudden auto ignition of the airfuel charge
in a SI engine combustion chamber. Characteristic sound of detonation.
POLLUTANTS – Any gas or substance in the exhaust gases from the engine
or that evaporates from the fuel tank or carburettor. These gases or
substances add to the pollution of our atmosphere.
POLLUTION – The presence of matter or energy whose nature, location or
quantity produces undesirable environmental effects.
POSITIVE CRANKCASE VENTILATION – PCV system-A crankcase
ventilating system which produces the circulation of air through the
crankcase, thus clearing it of water vapour, unburned hydrocarbons,
and blow by, the air passes into the intake system of the engine and
hence into the combustion chambers where they are burnt.
POT TYPE BURNER – It is a hot plate burner in which the fuel oil drops
into a hot plate and vapourizes.
POUR POINT OF FUEL – is the temperature at which crystals begin to
appear and the fuel flow will be interrupted, as the fuel is being cooled.
PREI-GNITION – Ignition of air fuel mixture in the SI engine cylinder (by
any means) before the (ignition) spark occurs at the spark plug terminals.
PRIMARY AIR – The air mixed with the fuel at or in the burner. It ensures
instant combustion as the fuel enters the furnace.
PRIMARY POLLUTANT – A pollutant emitted directly from a polluting source.
PROPANE – A type of LPG that is liquid below –42°C at atmospheric
pressure.
PULSATION – A panting of the flames in a furnace, indicating cyclic and
rapid changes in the pressure in the furnace.
PURGE – The evacuation of air or any other designated gas from the duct line,
pipe line, container or furnace. Purging may be done in some instances
simply by the use of a fan or blower, in others by driving out the air or gas
by means of an inert gas, such as nitrogen, under high pressure.
RADIOACTIVE – Substances that emit rays either naturally or as a result of
scientific manipulation.
REFUSE – A term generally used for all solid waste materials.

RETORT – A trough or channel built into an underfeed stoker through
which the stoker ram pushes green coal into the fire. The coal enters the
fire from below, hence the name “underfeed”.
ROTARY BURNER – One in which the oil entering at the center of a rotary
cup is whirled around very rapidly until the oil is thrown away from
the cup. By centrifugal force it mixes with air and ignites.
SAFETY CONTROLS – Devices that guard against (1) overpressure leading
to explosions from the water side or steam side, (2) overheating of
metal parts, possibly also leading to explosion in a fired boiler, (3) fire
side explosions (furnace explosions) due to uncontrolled combustible
mixtures on the firing side.
SECONDARY AIR – Air introduced into a furnace above and around the
flames as may be necessary to promote combustion. This air is in addition
to the primary air which enters either as a mixture with fuel or as blast
underneath a stoker.
SHREDDER– A machine used to break up waste materials into smaller
pieces by cutting or tearing.
SCRUBBER – A device that uses a liquid spray to remove aerosol and gaseous
pollutants from an air stream.
SLACK – A coal of fine size, often screenings, maximum size is not likely to
exceed 62.5 mm.
SLAG TAP FURNACE – A furnace for burning pulverized fuel in which
the ash puddles in the bottom of the furnace in a molten state and is
removed periodically or continuously, depending on the design of the
system, while still in the molten condition.
SMOG – A term coined from smoke and fog. This is applied to the fog like
layer that hangs over many areas under certain atmospheric conditions.
Smog is compounded from smoke, moisture and numerous chemicals
which are produced by combustion and from numerous natural and
industrial processes.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY – A measure of the weight per unit volume of a
liquid as compared with the weight of an equal volume of water.
SURFACE IGNITION – Ignition of air fuel mixture in the combustion
chamber produced by hot metal surfaces or heated particles of carbon.
SYNTHETIC FUELS – Fuels such as ethanol and butanol derived from

coal, and hydrogen from water.
TETRA ETHYL LEAD – A chemical put into engine fuel which increases
octane rating, or reduces knock tendency. Also called ethyl and tel.
TORCH – Combustible material on a metal rod, such as oil soaked rags,
used to light up oil and gas burners. The torch is extinguished by being
plunged into a prepared receptacle.
TUYERES – Castings appearing as components of underfeed stokers and
designed to admit air to the green coal moving through the retorts.
VAPOURIZATION – To change a liquid into a vapour, often by the addition
of heat.
VAPOURIZING BURNER – A burner in which the fuel oil is vapourized
by heating in a retort. It may be a mixing or non mixing type.
VAPOUR LOCK – A condition in the fuel system in which gasoline has
vapourized and turned to bubbles in the fuel line or fuel pump, so that
the fuel delivery to the carburettor of a SI engine is prevented or retarded.
VOLATILITY – refers to the ease with which a liquid vapourizes. A liquid
which vapourizes at a relatively low temperature has a high volatility.
This liquid is said to be highly volatile.
WIND BOX – A plenum from which air is supplied to a stoker or to gas or
oil burners.
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CHAPTER
17
STEAM BOILERS
AIR PREHEATER – A device that makes the final heat recovery from boiler
flue gases and uses the same to preheat the incoming furnace air for its
reaction with fuel.
ANTI-INCRUSTATOR – A substance used to prevent the formation of
scale on the internal surfaces of steam boilers.
ANTIPRIMING PIPE – A pipe placed in the steam space of a boiler, so as
to collect the steam while excluding entrained water.
AUTOMATIC FEED WATER REGULATOR – Device that regulates
feedwater supply to the boiler according to load, and so does away with
hand operation of valves on feed lines. It is controlled by temperature,
its action depends upon expansion and contraction of some metal part.
AUTOMATIC INJECTOR – One that is self starting after its operation
has been stopped by the interruption of its water supply.
BABCOCK and WILCOX BOILER – A water tube boiler consisting in its
simplest form of a horizontal drum from which is suspended a pair of
headers carrying between them an inclined bank of straight tubes.
BAG – A bulged out section of a portion of the shell, extending through the
full thickness of the shell, caused by over heating and pressure.
BALANCED DRAUGHT – A system of air supply to a boiler furnace, in
which one fan forces air through the grate, while a second, situated in
the uptake, exhausts the flue gases. The pressure in the furnace is thus
at atmospheric i.e., is balanced.
BANKING LOSS – The fuel used in maintaining a floating bank or to
maintain a dead bank and then raise the steam pressure to normal.
BANKING UP – Reducing the rate of combustion in a boiler furnace by

covering the fire with slack or fine coal.
BENSON BOILER – A high pressure boiler of the once through type in
which water is pumped through the successive elements of the heating
surface, firing being by gas, oil, or pulverized coal.
BLISTER – A separation of the metal from the shell plate, caused by
impurities rolled into the shell plate when formed.
BLOWDOWN OF SAFETY VALVE – The difference between the pressure
at which the safety valve pops and that at which it closes.
BLOWING OFF – Act of letting out water and steam from a boiler to carry
off accumulated mud and scale.
BLOW OFF VALVE – The valve which empties the boiler for cleaning,
inspection, or repair. It blows out mud, scale, or sediment when the
boiler is in operation and prevents excessive concentration of soluble
impurities in the boiler. Also used for rapid lowering of boiler water
level if it is too high.
BOILER – A closed pressure vessel in which a fluid is heated and converted
to vapour for use external to itself, by the direct application of heat
resulting from the combustion of fuel (solid, liquid or gaseous) or by
the use of electricity or nuclear energy.
BOILER CAPACITY –The weight of steam, usually expressed in kg/hour,
which a boiler can evaporate, when steaming at full load output.
BOILER COMPOSITION – Chemicals introduced into the boiler feed
water to inhibit scale formation and corrosion, or to prevent priming
or foaming.
BOILER CROWN –The upper rounded plates of the boiler of shell type.
BOILER EFFICIENCY – The ratio of heat supplied by a boiler in heating
and evaporating the feed water to the heat supplied to the boiler in
the fuel. It may vary from 60 to 90 per cent.
BOILER PATCH – A small piece of metal used to cover and strengthen a
weak spot. A soft patch is a covering over a leak or defect which is
fastened with bolts, as distinguished from a hard patch which is riveted.
BOILER PLATE – Mild steel plate, generally produced by the open hearth
process, used mainly for the shells and drums of steam boilers.
Steam Boilers 213
BOILER PRESSURE – The pressure at which steam is generated in a boiler.

BOILER SETTING – The supporting structure on which a boiler rests,
usually of brick for land boilers and steel for marine boilers.
BOILER TEST – (1) A hydraulic pressure test applied to check water
tightness under pressure greater than the working pressure. (2) An
efficiency test carried out to determine evaporative capacity and
magnitude of losses.
BOILER TRIAL – An efficiency test of a steam boiler, in which the weight
of feed water and of fuel burnt are measured and various sources of
losses are assessed.
BOILER TUBES – Steel tubes forming part of the heating surface in a
boiler. In water tube boilers, the hot gases surround the tubes. In
locomotive and some marine boilers (fire tube boilers) the gases pass
through the tubes.
BREECHING – The metal duct that carries the smoke and gases of
combustion from a furnace to the stack or chimney for ultimate
discharge to the atmosphere.
CARRY OVER – It is entrained moisture and associated solids passing from
a boiler with the steam.
CAULKING – Upsetting or burring up of the edge of the plate or strap after
riveting so as to make the edges press down tightly on the plate beneath
and thus form a water and steam tight joint.
CHECK VALVE – A form of non return valve used to control the flow of
water as in pump operation.
CHIMNEY – A tall, hollow cylindrical column built of steel, brick or concrete
used to produce the required natural draft effect.
CHIMNEY EFFECT – The upward movement of warm air or gas, compared
with ambient air or gas, due to the lesser density of the warm air or
gas. Chimney effect may be a cause of uneven heating in buildings
two or more stories high.
CLEANING THE FIRE – Operation of removing clinkers, etc., from the
burning coal at regular intervals.
CLOSED HEATER – A type of heater in which the steam and feed water
are separated by a metal surface.
CLYDE BOILER – A boiler similar to a scotch boiler, but instead of a water

space at the back end of the combustion chamber, a removable back which
is lined with some insulating material such as asbestos or fire tile, is existing.
COCK – A device for regulating the flow of fluids through a pipe.
COLLECTOR or DRY PIPE – A pipe placed inside a boiler at a high point
and having small perforations throughout its length so as to take off
steam at a multiplicity of points and thus avoid turbulence caused by
taking off steam at only one point.
CORROSION – Chemical action which causes destruction of the surface of
a metal by oxidation, rusting. It is an electrochemical attack.
DOUBLE TUBE BOILER – Boiler having an auxiliary tube placed inside
each main tube. Gases flow from one end to the other end through
the auxiliary tube and from that end to the other end in the reverse
direction through the annular space in the main tube.
DOWN COMER – A large vertical tube or pipe for circulating water from
the water space of the steam drum to water wall headers.
DRAFT – The difference of pressure producing air flow through the boiler
furnace, flue and chimney.
DUPLEX PUMP – A combination of two pumps arranged side by side and so
connected that movement of each operates the steam valve of the other.
ECONOMIZER – Feed water heater placed between the boiler and chimney
(exhaust) stack, so as to absorb a portion of the heat in the gases, not
absorbed by the boiler.
ELECTRIC BOILER – Unit in which the resistance of water between solid
metal electrodes generates heat and thereby produces steam.
EROSION – It is a mechanical action causing wear by abrasion.
EXTERNALLY FIRED BOILER – One in which the furnace is outside the
boiler shell, the furnace walls being usually of fire brick. Example, the
familiar horizontal return tubular boiler.
FEED WATER – The water (chemically treated water) supplied to a boiler
to replace that evaporated as steam or blown off.
FEED WATER HEATER – An apparatus for raising the temperature of
boiler feedwater by abstracting some of the heat from exhaust steam
or from the hot gases of combustion.
Steam Boilers 215
FEED WATER REGULATOR – An automatic device which controls the

amount of feed water admitted to the boiler so as to maintain a constant
water level in the boiler drum.
FIREBOX BOILER – Boiler having the fire within a firebox, although
external to the shell, is rigidly connected to it.
FIRE CRACKS – Cracks caused by radiant heat, usually around
circumferential riveted seams of thick plates.
FIRE LINE – The highest point of the heating surface in most common
types of boilers.
FIRE TUBE – Tube in which the products of combustion pass through and
water surrounds the tube.
FLASH BOILER – A boiler consisting of a series of coils of steel tubing,
water is supplied by a pump to the top coil, from where it circulates
through the other coils, becoming heated in its descent and issuing
from the lower coil, as highly superheated steam.
FLUID VAPOURIZER GENERATOR – A closed vessel in which a heat
transfer medium, other than water, is vapourized under pressure by
the application of heat.
FOAMING – It is severe priming or agitation of the water level due to dirty
or impure water. Small, stable, non-coalescing bubbles are formed
through the boiler water.
FOULING – A condition of the flue gas passages in a boiler or furnace that
adversely affects the transfer of heat, usually in the form of soot or
scale.
FURNACE – That part of the boiler designed for burning the fuel.
FUSIBLE PLUG – A safety device which acts in case of dangerously low
water. It consists of an alloy of tin, lead and bismuth and a covering of
brass or cast iron. The plug melts during dangerous water levels and
permits steam to rush into the furnace and put out fire.
GALLOWAY TUBES – Transverse tubes placed in a flue tube and attached
to the openings in the side of the flue to increase the heating surface.
GAUGE COCK – A device for determining the water level in the boiler.
GIRDER STAY – A cast steel or built up girder with its ends resting on the
side or end sheets of the fire box or combustion chamber, and
supporting the flat crown sheet or top sheet of the combustion chamber
by means of bolts.
GOOSE NECK – A short length of pipe having one complete turn to which
the steam gauge is attached.
GRATE SURFACE – The area of the grate upon which fire rests in a coal or
wood fired boiler.
GROOVING – Surface cracking of boiler plates. Expansion and contraction
of parts too rigidly connected cause grooving.
GROSS FEED WATER – The net feed water plus the quantity of water
provided for that blown out.
GUSSET STAY – Pieces of plate iron secured to the boiler front or back
near the top or bottom by means of angle irons.
HEATING SURFACE IN A BOILER – Fire side area in a boiler exposed to
the products of combustion. The area consists of the surface area of
tubes, fire boxes, shells, tube sheets and projected area of headers.
HORIZONTAL RETURN TUBULAR BOILER – One so arranged that
the products of combustion after passing along the length of the shell,
return in an opposite direction through the tubes, before passing up
the stack.
HOT WATER HEATING BOILER – A hot water heating boiler is used
for space water heating, with the water returned to the boiler.
HOT WATER SUPPLY BOILER – A boiler which supplies hot water to be
used externally to itself for washing, cleaning etc.
INCRUSTATION – A coating over, the coating, being commonly known
as scale.
INDUSTRIAL BOILER – A stationary water tube steam generator, in which
some of the steam is produced in a convective tube bank.
INJECTOR – An instrument for forcing water into a boiler against the
boiler pressure by means of a steam jet.
INTERMITTENT BLOW DOWN – Blow down that is taken from the
bottom of the mud-drum, water wall headers, or lowest point in the
circulation system, at regular intervals.
INTERNALLY FIRED BOILER – Boiler in which the furnace is within
the shell, being surrounded by water.
Steam Boilers 217
INTERNAL TREATMENT – Treating water in the boiler while evaporation

is taking place by chemically adjusting or balancing the boiler water
to prevent scale formation, corrosion, steam contamination and
embrittlement.
JAW STAY – A round bar having jaws forged at one end and a flat plate at
the other inclined at the proper angle for riveting to the boiler shell.
LIGAMENT – The metal between tube holes in boiler practise. Section of
the metal not cut away between two adjacent tube holes.
LOCOMOTIVE BOILER – A specially designed boiler, specifically meant
for self propelled traction vehicles on rails.
LOG SHEET – A forced reminder to check certain components of a boiler
to prevent trouble from developing later and to note if proper operation
is taking place. A data sheet.
LOW WATER CUT OFF – A device that shuts down the boiler immediately
if the water drops to a dangerously low level.
MAKE UP WATER – Additional water to be put into the boiler periodically
to make up for the loss due to leakage or exhausting of steam without
condensation.
MARINE BOILER – A low head type special design boiler meant for ocean
cargo and passenger ships with an inherent fast steaming capacity.
MECHANICAL DRAFT – The draft artificially produced by mechanical
devices such as fans and in some units by steam jets.
MECHANICAL STOKER – A device constructed to automatically feed
fuel to a furnace. Its use results in more efficient combustion owing to
constant instead of intermittent firing.
MINIATURE HIGH PRESSURE BOILER – A boiler which does not
exceed the following limits: (1) 16" inside diameter of shell. (2) 5
cuft. gross volume exclusive of casing and insulation (3) 100 psi gauge.
If it exceeds any of these limits, it is called a power boiler.
MISSISSIPPI COCK – A cock in which steam pressure keeps the cock
closed and a push button is provided to open the cock.
NATURAL DRAFT – The draft caused by the difference in weight between
the column of hot gas inside the chimney and a column of cool outside
air of the same height and cross-section.
NET FEED WATER – The quantity of water necessary to supply a stated

evaporation in a given interval of time.
NON-SECTIONAL BOILER – A boiler in which the tubes are divided
into groups, each group communicating with a header at each end,
making independent units.
ONCE THROUGH BOILER – A boiler or steam generator which receives
feed water at one end of continuous tubes and discharges steam at the
other end.
OPEN HEATER – An open chamber in which the exhaust steam and water
to be heated are brought into intimate contact by spraying the water
through the steam, both the water and condensate going to the boiler.
PACKAGED BOILER – A completely factory assembled boiler either water
tube or fire tube, including boiler firing apparatus, controls and boiler
safety devices.
PALM STAY – A round rod having forged on one end a plate or palm.
pH VALUE – It is a number between 0 and 14 indicating the degree of
acidity or alkalinity.
PITTING – A form of corrosion resulting in a series of minute holes or pits
eaten into the surface of the metal to a depth of sometimes 6 mm.
POP SAFETY VALVE – A valve so constructed that it opens very suddenly
like a cork popping out of a champagne or sparkling burgandy bottle and
remains open until the pressure is reduced a predetermined amount.
PORCUPINE BOILER – A boiler having a vertical drum into which are
screwed a multiplicity of horizontal radial short tubes.
PORTABLE BOILER – A boiler mounted on a truck, barge, a small river
boat, or any other such mobile apparatus.
POSITIVE INJECTOR – One with a hand operated overflow valve, which permits
operation at high pressure by stopping the drizzle from the overflow.
POWER BOILER – A power boiler is a steam or vapour boiler operating
above 15 psig and exceeding the miniature size boiler.
PRIMING – It lifts the water level and delivers steam containing spray of
water. It is usually caused by forcing a boiler too hard or by a too high
water level or a combination of both these causes.
RADIAL STAYS – Long threaded rods used in locomotive boilers, screwed through
both the firebox crown sheet and wrapper sheet and the ends riveted.
Steam Boilers 219
REDUCING VALVE – An automatic throttle valve for use where low pressure
steam for heating or process is taken from high pressure mains.
REGENERATIVE AIR HEATER – A type of air heater containing a rotor
which comes in contact alternately with hot gases and air thereby
transfers heat from hot gases to the air.
REHEATER – A superheater that heats steam which is let out from a high
pressure turbine and after heating sends the steam to a low pressure
turbine thereby increases the plant efficiency.
RETARDERS – Also called Spinners-These are helical strips or ribbons of
metal centered in horizontal or vertical fire tubes of a fire tube boiler
for increasing the wiping effect on the inner surfaces of the tubes, by
the flue gases on their way to the chimney stack. The tubes cannot be
cleaned by scraping or brushing until these strips are removed. Retarders
also increase the boiler frictional resistance to the flue gases.
RINGLEMANN CHART – The chart used for comparing the smokes
density when no instrument is available.
RIVETED JOINT EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the strength of a unit section
of the joint to the same unit length of solid plate. Unit length usually
taken is the pitch of the rivets (distance from centre to centre) in the
row having the greatest pitch.
RIVETED STAYS – Stays in which the threaded ends are riveted instead of
having a nut at each end.
SAFETY VALVE – A circular valve connecting the steam space of a boiler
and loaded to such an extent that when the pressure of steam exceeds
a certain point, the valve is lifted from its seat and allows the steam to
escape. The valve is loaded either by weight or by a spring. The release
of steam saves the boiler from explosion.
SCALE – Incrustation within a vessel caused by the mineral substances from
the water. Scale is a result of the chemical effect of the heat and
concentration. A hard coating, chiefly calcium sulphate. If the scale is
excessive, it leads to overheating of the metal and ultimate failure.
SCOTCH BOILER – A horizontal boiler in which the combustion chamber
at the end of the boiler shell is entirely surrounded by water.
SCUM SCOOP – Apparatus for blowing out water from the surface to
remove fine particles of scale forming foreign matter.
SEPARATOR – The device that removes as much moisture as possible from

steam after it leaves the boiler.
SINGLE TUBE BOILER – Boiler made up of plain tubes, and the gases
flow from one end to the other end of the tubes.
SOCKET STAY – Also called stay bolt consisting of a rod and socket.
STATIONARY BOILER – A boiler which is installed permanently on a
land installation.
STAY BOLT – Short stay bars to support flat surfaces that are only a short
distance apart, such as inner and outer sheets of water legs in a
locomotive boiler. Generally have screw threads cut at one end, and
sometimes at both ends, to receive a nut.
STAY ROD or THROUGH STAY – A plain rod 1 1/4" to 2 1/2" in diameter
having nuts and washers for fastening the ends to the plates.
STAY TUBE – A thick tube with threads on the ends, one end being larger
than the other so that the tube may be slipped through the large hole.
STEEL ANGLE STAY – Two lengths of steel angle riveted together forming
a T shape piece and riveted to the plate.
STEAM – Water in a semigaseous condition. It is a vapour than a gas, that is
a substance between the purely liquid and gaseous states. Wet steam.
STEAM BOILER – A closed vessel in which steam or other vapour is
generated continuously for use external to itself by the direct application
of heat resulting from the combustion of fuel (solid, liquid, or gaseous)
or by the use of electricity or nuclear energy.
STEAM GAUGE – A device for indicating gauge pressure as distinguished
from absolute pressure.
STEAM LOOP – An ingeneous thermal pump consisting of an arrangement
of piping wherein condensate is returned to the boiler.
STEAM SEPARATOR – An apparatus for separating out moisture that may
be carried in suspension by steam flowing in pipelines, and for preventing
this moisture from reaching and perhaps damaging engines, pumps, or
other machinery that may be driven by the steam.
STEAM SPACE – The space above the water level in a boiler where steam
gets collected until it is drawn off through the steam main.
STEAM TRAP – An automatic device which allows the passage of water
but prevents the passage of steam. It is used to drain pipes of condensate.
Steam Boilers 221
STOP VALVE – A non-return valve having a hand wheel and screw stem
which acts only to close the valve.
SUBMERGED TUBE BOILER – A vertical boiler having tubes extending
from the lower tube sheet to an upper submerged tube sheet.
SUPER CRITICAL BOILER – A boiler that operates above the super critical
pressure of 3206. 2 psi and 705.4°F saturation temperature.
THERMAL LIQUID HEATER – A closed vessel in which a heat transfer
medium other than water is heated without vapourization, and the
heated fluid gives up its heat and does useful work outside the closed
vessel.
THROUGH TUBE BOILER – A vertical shell boiler having tubes extending
from the lower tube sheet to the full length of the shell.
TRAVELLING GRATE or CHAIN GRATE – A type of overfeed stoker
consisting of an endless grate composed of short sections of bars passing
over sprockets at the front and rear of the furnace.
TUBE SHEET – A sheet of a water tube boiler where tubes are inserted,
either in a flat sheet or a drum.
UNDERFEED STOKER – One in which the fuel is fed upward from
underneath.
WASTE HEAT BOILER – A boiler which uses byproduct heat such as from
a blast furnace in a steel mill, exhaust from a gas turbine, or by products
from a manufacturing process. Waste heat is passed over the heat exchanger
surfaces to produce steam or hot water for conventional use.
WATER ANALYSIS – Analyzing a water sample i.e., process of finding out
how much of the various impurities and other chemical substances are
present in the water. The results are usually expressed in parts per million
(ppm).
WATER COLUMN – A boiler fixture consisting of a cylindrical piece to
which are attached the water gauge and gauge cocks, thus combining
the two into one unit. The top and bottom have outlets which connect
it with the boiler below and above the water level.
WATER GAUGE – A device used to indicate the height of water within a boiler.
WATER GRATE – A series of pipes connected close together in parallel to a
header at one end and to upflow elements at the other.
WATER LINE – The level at which water stands in the boiler.

WATER TUBE – One which is surrounded by the products of combustion,
the water being inside the tube.
WATER TUBE BOILER – A boiler which contains one or more relatively
small drums with a multiplicity of tubes in which water steam circulate
and hot gases surround the tubes.
WINDOW PATCH – A patch used to seal a hole cut in a water tube to
provide access for welding the backside of a circumferential joint, or
to replace a small, sharp bag.
CHAPTER
18
STEAM ENGINES AND STEAM
TURBINES
ACCELERATED FLOW – Type of flow that takes place in nozzles. The

flow accelerates and pressure reduces.
ADMISSION – The point in the working cycles of a steam or IC engine at
which the inlet valve allows entry of the working fluid into the cylinder.
AIR PUMP – A reciprocating or centrifugal pump used to remove air, and
sometimes the condensate, from the condenser of a steam plant.
ANGLE OF ADVANCE – The angle in excess of 90 degree by which the
eccentric throw of a steam engine valve gear is in advance of the crank.
ALLAN VALVE – A steam engine slide valve, in which a supplementary
passage increases the steam supply to the port during admission to
reduce wire drawing.
ATMOSPHERIC ENGINE – An early form of steam engine in which a
partial vacuum created by steam condensation allowed atmospheric
pressure to drive down the piston.
AXIAL DISCHARGE TURBINE – A steam turbine in which the absolute
velocity of steam flow at exit is a minimum i.e., the steam discharges in
the axial direction.
AXIAL FLOW TURBINE – Steam turbine in which the general direction
of steam flow has been roughly parallel to the turbine axis.
BACK PRESSURE TURBINE – A steam turbine from which the whole of
the exhaust steam, at a suitable pressure, is taken for heating purposes.
BAROMETRIC CONDENSER – A high level jet condenser.
BASTERED CONDENSER – It is an atmospheric keel condenser, which
are sometimes fitted to canal boats or other sea vessels.
BINARY VAPOUR ENGINE – A heat engine using two separate working

fluids, generally mercury vapour and steam, for the high and low
temperature portions of the cycle respectively, thus enabling a large
temperature range to be used, with improved thermal efficiency.
BLADE – Part attached to the rotating element of the machine or rotor, in
which the stream of steam particles has its direction and hence its
momentum changed. Also called DEFLECTOR.
BLADE VELOCITY COEFFICIENT – The ratio of the relative velocity
of steam at outlet to the relative velocity at inlet of the blade.
BLANK FLANGE – A disc, or solid flange, used to blank off the end of a
pipe.
BLAST PIPE – The exhaust steam pipe in the smoke box of a locomotive,
which terminates in a nozzle to provide draft by entraining the flue
gases in the steam jet and exhausting them through the chimney.
BLEEDING – A method of improving the thermal efficiency of steam plant
by withdrawing a small part of the steam from the higher pressure
stages of a turbine to heat the boiler feed water.
BLEEDER TURBINE – A steam turbine in which the steam is extracted at
one or more intermediate stages for industrial use, often at
comparatively high pressure.
BYPASS GOVERNING – Governing arrangement in which part of the
steam that enters the turbine is bypassed depending upon the extent
of load reduction.
CARRY-OVER LOSS – Loss of kinetic energy at the exit of the turbine.
Also called LEAVING LOSS.
CHOKED FLOW – When a nozzle operates with the maximum mass flow
it is said to the choked.
COMPOUND TURBINE – A multistage steam turbine in which the
pressure energy of the steam is progressively transformed into kinetic
energy in two or more stages with or without velocity compounding
in each stage.
COMPOUND STEAM ENGINE – An engine which has two or more
cylinders of successively increasing diameters, so arranged that the
exhaust steam from the first cylinder (high pressure cylinder) is passed
on to do work in the second cylinder (low pressure cylinder), and to a
Steam Engines and Steam Turbines 225
third cylinder in triple expansion engine, before being finally exhausted

into a condenser.
CONDENSER – A vessel into which steam is exhausted and condensed instead
of being rejected into the atmosphere after doing work in an engine
cylinder or turbine. This is primarily for removing the back pressure
upon an engine or turbine and thereby improve the plant efficiency.
CONDENSING CYCLE – A steam power plant cycle in which the exhaust
steam is discharged into a condenser having a low back pressure, so
that more energy can be extracted per unit weight of steam.
CONSTANT VELOCITY FLOW – Type of flow that takes place in parallel
ducts.
COOLING POND – A shallow reservoir having a large surface area for removing
heat from the cooling water used to condense steam in condensers.
COOLING TOWER – An apparatus designed to remove from the cooling
water, used in a condenser, as much heat as can possibly be abstracted
per unit space occupied by the apparatus.
COUNTERFLOW STEAM ENGINE – The engine in which the steam
leaves the cylinder at the same end at which it entered.
CRITICAL PRESSURE OF NOZZLE – The pressure at which the velocity
of the fluid equals the local sound velocity.
CRITICAL PRESSURE RATIO – Ratio of critical pressure of nozzle to the
initial pressure.
CRITICAL SPEED OF A SHAFT – The speed at which the shaft
displacement tends to be very large, and the shaft may become
permanently bent.
CUSHION STEAM – The steam present in the cylinder during compression
which occurs just after the exhausting of steam by the inward
movement of the piston.
CUTOFF GOVERNING – Control of engine speed is accomplished by
changing the volume of steam admitted to an engine cylinder as the
load fluctuates. The points of steam cut off comes early in the stroke
of the engine piston with light loads and later when they increase.
DECELERATED FLOW – Type of flow that takes place in the diffusers
velocity decreases.
DEGREE OF REACTION – In an impulse reaction turbine, it is the ratio

of the enthalpy drop that takes place in rotor blades to the total enthalpy
drop that occurs in the stage.
DIAGRAM EFFICIENCY or BLADING EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the
rate of doing work per kg of steam (diagram work) to the energy supplied
to the rotor per kg of steam.
DIAGRAM FACTOR – Ratio of actual indicator diagram area to the
hypothetical indicator diagram area.
DIAPHRAGMS – Partitions, which separate one wheel chamber from the
next and in which nozzles are usually fitted in the case of pressure
compounded impulse turbine.
DIFFUSER – The duct in which a fluid is decelerated causing a rise in pressure
along the stream.
DISC FRICTION – Surface friction loss due to relative motion between
the disc and steam particles when the disc is rotating in the viscous
fluid i.e., steam.
DOUBLE ACTING ENGINE – A steam engine in which a power cycle is
produced in each end of the cylinder during one revolution of the
crankshaft.
DOUBLE DECK SPRAY POND – The pond having spray nozzles arranged
at different elevations.
D SLIDE VALVE – A sliding valve which alternately admits steam to and
releases the steam from each end of the steam engine cylinder.
DRY AIR PUMP – A pump designed to handle air and gases only, which
will give a higher vacuum than possible with a wet air pump.
ECCENTRICITY – The distance between the centre of the crankshaft and
the centre of the eccentric and is equal to the effective crank arm of
the eccentric.
ENGINE RELATIVE EFFICIENCY – Ratio of actual thermal efficiency
to that of the rankine cycle for the same pressure and temperature
conditions.
EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER – A type of surface condenser in which the
steam is fed through the condenser tubes over which cooling water is
sprayed and cooling is effected mainly by evaporation of the sprayed water.
EXHAUST LAP – The overlap of the release edge of the D slide valve over
the release edge of the port when the valve is in the mid position
which is the middle of its travel.
FULL ADMISSION TURBINE – A steam turbine in which steam is
admitted over the entire circumference of the blade annulus. Reaction
turbines are full admission turbines.
GLAND – Device provided to minimise the leakage of steam, or in the case
of the low pressure end of the turbine the leakage of air through the
clearance space which separates the rotor from the casing.
HEAT ENGINE – A device which transforms heat energy into mechanical
energy and render the latter available for doing useful work. It is merely
an energy transformer.
HELICAL FLOW TURBINE – A single pressure, multiple velocity stage
machine designed for helical flow.
IMPULSE – The act of impelling or suddenly driving forward in the same
direction as the applied force.
IMPULSE TURBINE – A steam turbine in which the steam is expanded
causing pressure drop in nozzles only and the moving blades attached
to the rotor merely deflect the steam through an angle. The pressure
on the two sides of the blades remains constant.
IMPULSE REACTION TURBINE – A steam turbine in which the steam
is expanded both in the fixed blade and the moving blade continuously
as the steam passes over them. The pressure drops gradually and
continuously over both moving and fixed blades. Often called as
REACTION TURBINE.
INTERNAL TURBINE EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the total useful heat drop
to the adiabatic heat drop corresponding to the whole pressure drop
that occurs. This is the product of stage efficiency and reheat factor.
JET CONDENSER – A closed chamber within which exhaust steam comes
in direct contact with a spray or jet of cold water and is condensed.
KEEL CONDENSER – A type of marine outboard single pass surface
condenser attached to the side of a hull below the water line. It requires
no circulating water pump.
LAP OF D SLIDE VALVE – It is that portion of the valve face which
overlaps the ports when the valve is in its central or neutral position.
The distance overlapping on the outside is called OUTSIDE LAP or

STEAM LAP, and the distance overlapping on the inside is called
INSIDE LAP or EXHAUST LAP.
LAYBRINTH GLAND – A type of gland consisting of a series of intricate
passages, laybrinths, which are designed to destroy the kinetic energy
developed by the steam leaving through the small clearance space. In
the clearance space, this energy is converted to thermal energy.
LEAD OF D SLIDE VALVE – The amount by which the steam port is
opened by the valve when the piston in a steam engine cylinder is at
the begining of its stroke.
LOW PRESSURE TURBINE – A turbine operating at approximately
atmospheric pressure and expanding to condenser pressure.
MISSING QUANTITY – In a steam engine, this is the lack of volume due
to the steam not remaining dry and saturated during expansion.
MIXED PRESSURE TURBINE – A turbine designed to work on two or
more pressures.
NATURAL POND – A natural flow pond having no baffle walls or spray
nozzle.
NET EFFICIENCY – Ratio of network delivered at shaft to the total energy
supplied to the steam turbine/steam engine. In the case of steam turbine
it is the product of nozzle efficiency, diagram efficiency and mechanical
efficiency.
NOZZLE – A duct of smoothly varying cross-sectional area in which a steadily
flowing fluid can be made to accelerate by a pressure drop along the duct.
NOZZLE CONTROL GOVERNING – Governing arrangement in which
nozzles are grouped together in three or five or more groups and each
group of nozzles is supplied with steam which is controlled by valves.
NOZZLE EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the actual enthalpy drop to the isentropic
enthalpy drop between the same pressures.
NOZZLE THROAT – The section of the nozzle where the area is minimum.
OVER EXPANDING – A nozzle which operates with a back pressure above
the designed value of pressure at the exit of the nozzle.
OVERALL THERMAL EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the useful heat drop to
the heat supplied in a turbine.
PARTIAL ADMISSION TURBINE – An impulse turbine in which the

nozzles occupy only a part of the circumference leading into blade
annulus and therefore admit steam over part of the blade annulus.
Impulse turbines are partial admission turbines.
PORT – The entrance at the valve seat to either a steam passage leading to
the cylinder or an exhaust passage leading to the exhaust pipe.
PRESSURE COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE – Steam turbine
in which the total pressure drop of steam is divided into stages in a
number of rings of fixed nozzles and the velocity produced by a ring
of nozzles is utilized almost fully in the immediately following row of
moving blades attached to the rotor.
PRESSURE VELOCITY COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE –
Steam turbine in which the total pressure drop of steam is divided into
stages and the velocity thus obtained in each stage is also compounded
ie utilized in two or more rings of moving blades.
RADIAL FLOW TURBINE – A steam turbine in which the blades are so
arranged to cause the flow of steam radially inwards or outwards.
RANKINE EFFICIENCY OF TURBINE – Ratio of the adiabatic heat
drop to the heat supplied.
REAMED NOZZLE – A round nozzle used primarily in the high pressure
impulse stage steam turbines. They have lower efficiency and somewhat
greater in length.
REHEAT CYCLE – A system in which steam is initially expanded through
a turbine and then reheated before further expansion in the turbine.
REHEAT FACTOR – In a multistage steam turbine it is the ratio of the
sum of the individual heat drops (cumulative drop) in the different
stages to the direct or adiabatic drop in a single step for the whole
pressure drop that occurs.
RELATIVE EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the overall thermal efficiency of the
actual plant to the thermal efficiency of the ideal Rankine cycle.
RIM HORSE POWER – Power developed by steam in passing over the
blade as obtained from the velocity diagrams.
SCOOP CONDENSER – A type of marine condenser with a flow of
circulating water induced through an enclosed chamber by the
movement of the vessel, rather than externally as with a keel condenser.
SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE – A steam turbine in which the expansion

of the steam takes place in one set of nozzles only.
SIMPLE MULTISTAGE TURBINE – A steam turbine in which the pressure
energy of the steam is progressively transformed into kinetic energy in
two or more pressure stages, there being one wheel to each stage.
SINGLE WHEEL IMPULSE TURBINE – A steam turbine having a set of
nozzles and one row of moving blades fixed to the rotor. The moving
blades deflect the steam and therefore cause a change in momentum
and consequently produce force i.e., motive force.
SPRAY POND – A pond which is provided with spray apparatus so that the
hot cooling water from the condenser is sprayed over the surface of the
pond and cooled.
STAGE EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the rate of doing work per kg of steam
(diagram work) to the energy supplied to the stage per kg of steam, in
a steam turbine. Also called GROSS STAGE EFFICIENCY. This is
product of nozzle efficiency and blade efficiency.
STEAM CONDENSER – Device in which the exhaust steam from an engine
or a turbine is condensed and air and other non condensable gases are
removed in a continuous process.
STEAM JET VACUUM PUMP – Pump system in which one or more
steam jets moving at a high velocity (1000 m/s) entrain the saturated
non condensable gases, and the mixture passes through an expanding
tube in which the velocity is reduced with a resulting increase in
pressure and finally the mixture is let out into the atmosphere. Also
called STEAM JET AIR EJECTOR.
STEAM LAP – The distance by which the admission edge of the D slide
valve overlaps the edge of the steam port when the valve is in the mid
position, which is the middle of its travel.
STEAM RATE OF AN ENGINE – The weight of steam supplied to a
steam engine per horse power hour.
STEAM TURBINE – A prime mover in which gradual changes in the momentum
of a fluid are utilized to produce rotation of the movable member.
STEAM TURBINE EXTERNAL LOSSES – Losses which do not affect
the steam conditions while it flows through the turbine, includes
mechanical losses and losses due to the end leakages.
STEAM TURBINE INTERNAL LOSSES – Losses connected with the

steam conditions while it flows through the turbine. These include
losses in regulating valve, nozzles, moving blades, carry-over losses from
one stage to another, rotor and guide blade clearance losses, loss due to
steam wetness and exhaust losses.
SURFACE CONDENSER – A device for condensing steam, in which the
steam and the cooling water do not come into contact with each other,
but are separated by metal surfaces.
SURFACE CONDENSER SINGLE PASS TYPE – Type of surface
condenser in which the cooling water flows in one direction only
through all the tubes.
SURFACE CONDENSER TWO PASS TYPE – Type of surface condenser
in which the cooling water flows in one direction through part of the
tubes and returns through the remainder.
TAPERED BLADES – Blades tapered in width along the length of the
blade so as to obtain an even more uniform centrifugal stress.
THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF RANKINE CYCLE – Ratio of the thermal
equivalent of output to thermal equivalent of input of a unit working
on Rankine cycle.
THERMOCOMPRESSOR or BOOSTER EJECTOR – Compression
device designed to handle steam instead of other gases.
THROTTLE GOVERNING – Governing effected in a steam engine by
varying the initial steam pressure within the engine cylinder. The
governor is called THROTTLE GOVERNOR. Power output is varied
by varying initial steam pressure.
TRANSONIC NOZZLE – A nozzle usually of the reamed type and this is
used in small impulse steam turbines, or velocity compounded stages
where large enthaply drops are required.
UNDER EXPANDING NOZZLE – A nozzle which operates with a back
pressure below the designed value of pressure at the exit of the nozzle.
VACUUM BREAKER – An automatic device used to protect the main engine
or turbine from flooding when a jet condenser is used.
VACUUM KEEL CONDENSER – A type of keel condenser having tubular
condensing surface, a return pipe for the condensate, the end of which
connects with a wet air pump.
VELOCITY COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE – Steam turbine

in which the total heat drop takes place in the nozzles, but the velocity
(energy) generated is utilized in two or more rings of blades attached
to the rotor.
WILLANS LINE – The line which represents the total weight of steam
necessary per hour plotted as ordinates against the corresponding
engine loads (either as IHP, BHP or KW) as abscissa.
WIRE DRAWING – In a steam engine, the fall in pressure caused by steam
flowing through the restricted (valve) Passage immediately before the
point of cut off.
WORKING STEAM – The steam that actually flows through the blades,
this is different from the total steam flow through the turbine.
CHAPTER
19
GAS TURBINES
ADIABATIC PROCESS – Thermodynamic process in which no heat is

transferred to or from the system during the process. A reversible
adiabatic process is called ISENTROPIC PROCESS.
AIRFOIL – A streamlined form bounded principally by two flattened curves
and whose length and width are very large in comparison with thickness.
The airfoil may be a symmetrical airfoil or a non-symmetrical airfoil.
AIRFOIL DRAG FORCE – Force acting on the airfoil in the direction of
motion, represents frictional forces.
AIRFOIL LIFT FORCE – Force acting on the airfoil in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of motion. Basic force causing the
aeroplane to maintain its lift.
AIR RATE – Kilograms per second of airflow required per net horse power
developed. Also called FLOWRATE.
ANGLE OF ATTACK – The angle of inclination of the non-symmetrical
airfoil with the direction of the undisturbed flow.
ANGLE OF DEVIATION – The difference between the fluid angle at outlet
and the blade angle at outlet. This may be positive or negative.
Sometimes called DEVIATION.
ANGLE OF INCDIENCE – The difference between the fluid angle at inlet
and the blade angle at inlet. This may be positive or negative. Sometimes
called INCIDENCE.
ANNULAR TYPE COMBUSTION CHAMBER – The combustion
chamber which is made up of four concentric surfaces surrounding
the axis of the rotor, forming three chambers on either side of the
rotor, the middle casing acts as a flame tube and the inner and outer
casings act as air casings, with a series of burners at the front end.
ASPECT RATIO OF BLADE – Ratio of blade height to blade chord.
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR – A type of compressor in which the fluid
flow is almost parallel to the axis of the compressor and the flow is
decelerating or diffusing and pressure rises are obtained by causing
the fluid to pass through a number of expanding spaces with
consequent reduction in velocity.
BLADES or BUCKETS – The parts that form the rotor flow passages and
serve to change the direction, and hence the momentum, of the fluid
received from the stationary nozzles.
BLADE SPEED RATIO – Ratio of mean blade speed to the absolute velocity
of the fluid stream at the blade inlet.
BOUNDARY LAYER – A thin layer of fluid adhering to a surface, when the
fluid flows along the surface, in which there is a steep velocity gradient
due to viscous friction, the velocity dropping to zero at the boundary
surface.
BRAYTON CYCLE – Basic cycle for gas turbines. The cycle in which air is
compressed isentropically, heated at constant pressure and expanded
isentropically thus delivers work until the low pressure is reached and
then heat is rejected. Also called JOULE CYCLE.
CAN TYPE COMBUSTION CHAMBER – Combustion chamber in
which the air leaving the compressor is split into several streams and
each stream is supplied to a separate cylindrical combustion chamber.
CARRY OVER LOSS – Kinetic energy discarded in the exhaust. Axial exit
of the fluid from the turbine blades reduces this loss.
CASING – Turbine enclosure to which the nozzles and guides are fixed. Also
called a SHELL or CYLINDER.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR – A type of compressor in which air is
sucked into the impeller eye, whirled around at high speed by the
vanes on the impeller disc and flung out by centrifugal force.
CLOSED CYCLE TURBINE – Turbine in which the working fluid does
not come in contact with the atmospheric air and the heat to the
working fluid is provided in the heater by burning the fuel externally.
Gas Turbines 235
COMBINATION PLANT – A gas turbine plant that utilizes reheat,

intercooling and regeneration.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER – The unit in which the chemical
combination of oxygen in the air supplied by the compressor takes
place with the carbon and hydrogen components of the fuel in such a
manner that a steady stream of the gases at uniform temperature is
produced and delivered to the turbine.
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY – The ratio of the actual heat realised by
the combustion of fuel to the ideal value i.e., calorific value.
COMBUSTION INTENSITY – Ratio of the rate of heat supply by fuel to
the product of volume of combustion chamber and inlet pressure in
atmospheres.
COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY – Ratio of work required for isentropic
compression to the actual work input. Also called ISENTROPIC
COMPRESSION EFFICIENCY.
COMPRESSOR MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY – Ratio of rotor horse
power to shaft horse power supplied to the compressor.
CONSTANT PRESSURE TURBINE – Turbine in which the fuel is burnt
at constant pressure. Combustion is a continuous process.
CONSTANT VOLUME TURBINE – Turbine in which the combustion
takes place at constant volume. Also called EXPLOSION TYPE
TURBINE.
CONVERGENT DIVERGENT DIFFUSER – A type of diffuser which
can build up pressure when velocities are reduced from supersonic to
subsonic values.
COOLING OF TURBINE BLADES – Turbine blades are cooled by
water or air. This enables the temperature of the blade metal to be
several hundred degrees lower than the gas temperature and permits
employment of correspondingly higher turbine inlet temperatures,
with the metals available at present, resulting in higher turbine
efficiency.
COUNTERFLOW HEAT EXCHANGER – A heat exchanger in which
compressed air and hot gases let out by the turbine, flow in opposite
directions.
CROSS COMPOUNDED UNIT – The system in which the low pressure

compressor is driven by the high pressure turbine and the high pressure
compressor by the low pressure turbine.
CROSS FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER – A heat exchanger in which the
compressed air and the hot gases let out by the turbine flow normal to
one another.
CYCLE PRESSURE RATIO – Ratio of the pressure at inlet to the gas turbine
to that at inlet to the compressor.
CYCLE WITH INTERCOOLED COMPRESSION – Gas turbine cycle in
which the compression of the working fluid is cut off at some intermediate
pressure and the fluid is cooled by passing it through a heat exchanger
supplied with coolant from some external source before being compressed
in the second compressor to the required pressure ratio.
DEFLECTION ANGLE – Total fluid turning angle i.e., difference between
the fluid angle at inlet and the fluid angle at outlet.
DEGREE OF REACTION (compressor) – The ratio of the static
temperature rise in the rotor to that in the whole stage.
DEGREE OF REACTION (turbine) – Ratio of enthaply drop in rotor
blades to enthaply drop in the stage.
DIAPHRAGM – The component fixed to the cylinder or casing and contains
the nozzles and serves to confine the fluid flow to the nozzle passages.
DIFFUSER – Unit connected to the outlet of the centrifugal compressor,
which provides a gradually increasing area to convert velocity energy
into pressure energy.
DIFFUSION – Process in which the energy of a moving stream of fluid is
transformed in such manner, then an increase in pressure occurs.
DISC or WHEEL – The component to which the moving blades are attached
directly and it is keyed or shrunk on the shaft.
DISC FRICTION – When a disc rotates in free air, a certain amount of
pumping action would take place, imparting motion to the
surrounding air, and this relative motion between the disc and air
causes friction, called disc friction.
DOUBLE SIDED IMPELLER – Impeller of a centrifugal compressor in
which suction takes place from both sides. Here, two similar impellers
are placed back to back.
Gas Turbines 237
DYNAMIC HEAD – The difference between the total head pressure and
the static pressure.
EFFICIENCY OF IMPULSE BLADING – Ratio of the delivered power
or energy, to the power or energy supplied in kinetic form to an impulse
blade.
ERICSON CYCLE – The gas turbine cycle which incorporates multistage
compression with intercooling, and multistage expansion with reheating.
FLAME STABILIZATION – Making the flame to be more or less stable at
a particular location in the combustion chamber by a system whereby
part of the high temperature products of combustion can be caused to
recirculate in order to ignite fresh reactants.
FLOW COEFFICIENT – Ratio of axial components of absolute velocity
of fluid stream to the blade velocity at that location.
FLOW LOSSES – Pressure loss due to friction and turbulence. This consists
of combustion chamber loss, heat exchanger loss (air side), heat
exchanger loss (gas side), intercooler loss (air side) and duct losses
occurring between components and at intake and exhaust.
FLUID ANGLES – Angles at which the fluid enters and leaves a blade.
These are seldom the same as the blade angles.
FOIL NOZZLE – A nozzle formed by curved airfoil sections or facsimiles
of airfoils and is characterised by its high efficiency.
FREE VORTEX FLOW – In a compressor, the condition when the whirl
velocity of a flowing fluid varies inversely as the radius.
FUEL RATIO – The weight of fuel used to heat unit weight of compressed
air to the turbine inlet temperature.
FULL ADMISSION – Admission of gas stream over the full blade entry,
and this becomes possible when the nozzles subtend the whole blade
circumference (annulus area).
GAGING – Ratio of the net area of gas flow to the total free annular area in
the blade ring.
GAS TURBINE – A rotary machine, which consists of a compressor,
combustion chamber and a turbine. Air is compressed in the
compressor, passed into the combustion chamber where fuel is burnt,
products of combustion impinge over rings of turbine blades with
high velocity and work is done.
GUIDE BLADES – Row of blades interposed between the blade rows

comprising rotor passages, so as to reverse the direction of the fluid
leaving the preceding moving blade row and make the general direction
of the fluid entering all the moving blade rows to be similar.
HEAT EXCHANGER – Device which uses some of the heat in the turbine
exhaust gas to preheat the air entering the combustion chamber. This
reduces the fuel supply for a given required temperature increase. Also
called REGENERATOR.
HEAT EXCHANGER THERMAL RATIO – Ratio of the actual heat picked
up by the compressed air in the heat exchanger to the maximum possible
heat that could be absorbed. Also called EFFECTIVENESS OF HEAT
EXCHANGER.
INTER COOLING – Cooling of air in between the stages of compression
so as to reduce the work of compression. The device used for cooling
is intercooler.
INTERNAL EFFICIENCY OF A TURBINE – Ratio of work (power)
delivered to the rotor of the turbine by the gaseous medium compared
with the ideal energy available for work (power) from the medium in
expanding through the same pressure range.
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY – Ratio of work to compress isentropically
to the actual work to compress. Also the ratio of isentropic temperature
rise to the actual temperature rise.
JET PROPULSION – The unit in which the gas turbine is designed to
produce just sufficient power to drive the compressor and the exhaust
gases from the turbine are then expanded to atmospheric pressure in a
propelling nozzle to produce a high velocity jet.
LACING WIRES – Wires called lacing wires or lashing wires are used to
keep long blades in alignment and to add stiffness.
LEAKAGE LOSSES – Energy loss due to leakage of the working fluid in
turbines, between stages, past the shaft and around the balance piston.
MACH NUMBER-M – Ratio of the stream velocity to the local acoustic velocity.
MULTI SHAFT GAS TURBINE – Turbine unit in which two or more
compressor combinations or turbines are carried on independent shafts.
In each turbine compressor combination, the machines are coupled
to each other in a series arrangement.
Gas Turbines 239
NET JET THRUST – That part of the thrust of a turbojet engine which is
available for climb and acceleration.
NOZZLE – A flow passage specially shaped to produce kinetic energy at the
expense of other forms of energy (available thermal energy).
NOZZLE EFFICIENCY – The ratio of the actual kinetic energy produced
on discharge (or between any two points in a nozzle) to that obtainable
by assuming an isentropic expansion in the nozzle.
ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW – The fluid flow in which the variables are
constant over any cross-section of the flow.
OPEN CYCLE TURBINE – Turbine in which the heat is transferred by
direct combustion and after doing work in the turbine, the gases are
exhausted into the atmosphere.
OVERALL EFFICIENCY OF JET PROPULSION – Product of the
propulsion efficiency of the jet unit and the thermal efficiency of the
jet unit.
OVERALL EFFICIENCY OF PROPELLER UNIT – Product of the
propeller (propulsion) efficiency, thermal efficiency of the engine
(power turbine) and the transmission efficiency from prime mover to
propeller shaft.
OVERALL TURBINE EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the delivered shaft work
(power) to the ideal energy available from the medium.
PARALLEL FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER – A heat exchanger in which
both compressed air and gases let out by the turbine flow in the same
longitudinal direction. Also called UNI DIRECTIONAL or
COCURRENT HEAT EXCHANGER.
PARTIAL ADMISSION – Admission of gas stream over only a part of the
blade circumference, since the nozzles are covering only a fraction of
the inlet blade circumferential annulus. This is the case in impulse
turbines.
PLANE SHOCK WAVE – Shock wave in which the variables of flow ego
pressure, temperature and velocity are constant along the wave front.
POLYTROPIC EFFICIENCY – The isentropic efficiency of an elemental
stage of the compression which is constant throughout the process.
Also called the SMALL STAGE EFFICIENCY.
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR – Type of compressor in

which a fixed amount of working fluid is being positively contained
during its passage through the machine.
POWER INPUT FACTOR – For a compressor this is the ratio of the actual
work to the theoretical work of compression. Represents an increase in
the work input the whole of which is absorbed in overcoming frictional
loss and which is therefore degraded into heat energy.
POWER RATIO – Ratio of useful or net horse power of the cycle compared
with the power developed by the turbine of the system. Also called
WORK RATIO.
PRESSURE COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE – The turbine in
which the pressure range available for expansion is broken into a series
of steps or stages. Each stage consists of a nozzle or bank of nozzles
(which increase the kinetic energy) followed by a row of turbine blades
or buckets (which absorb the kinetic energy).
PRESSURE RATIO – Ratio of pressure of air at the end of compression to
the pressure of air at the begining of compression.
PREWHIRL – Whirl velocity (tangential component of the absolute velocity
at intake), imparted to the air that enters the centrifugal compressor
impeller, by allowing the air to be drawn into the impeller eye over
curved inlet guide vanes attached to the impeller casing.
PRIMARY AIR – Part of the air which flows through the core of the
combustion chamber, in just sufficient quantity for combustion.
PRIMARY ZONE – Portion of the combustion chamber wherein about 15 to
20% of the air is introduced around the jet of fuel and the burning of this
rich mixture provides the high temperature necessary to prepare the mixture
for further reaction and burn it almost completely in a very short time.
PROPELLER JET ENGINE – The unit in which the gas turbine develops
power in excess of that required to drive the compressor and employs
this excess power to drive a propeller through reduction gearing and
the leaving jet also contributes to the thrust power.
PROPULSION EFFICIENCY – Ratio of thrust power to the jet power.
RAM EFFECT – The effect which causes an increase of temperature and
pressure of the air that enters the compressor of an aircraft gas turbine
unit due to aircraft speed. Sometimes called RAM.
Gas Turbines 241
RAM EFFICIENCY – Actual pressure rise realized in a diffuser compared

with the pressure rise possible under reversible conditions. Also called
INTAKE EFFICIENCY.
REACTION TURBINE – The turbine in which the nozzles and moving
blades are each made in the same general form, with the cross-section in
the direction of the gas flow reduced so that both the fixed and moving
blades act as expanding nozzles.
REGENERATIVE PLANT – The plant that utilizes a heat exchanger to
recover heat from the turbine exhaust gases and thereby decreases the
heat required to be added in the combustor.
REHEAT CYCLE – The unit in which the expansion of the hot gases is
carried out in two stages, and reheating of the working fluid to the
upper limit of temperature takes place between the stages of expansion.
ROCKET – A self propelled unit in which the fuel and the oxidant are
contained within the shell.
SECONDARY AIR – Air quantity which is about five times the minimum
air for combustion, that flows around the annular space of the
combustion chamber and cools the products of combustion.
SECONDARY ZONE – Portion of the combustion chamber wherein about
30% of air is added at the right points in the combustion process so as
to complete the combustion of fuel.
SHAFT, ROTOR, SPINDLE – The rotating assembly of the turbine which
carries the blades.
SHROUD – A band placed around the periphery of the blade tips in order to
stiffen the blades and prevent spillage of the fluid over the blade tips. Shrouds
may be continuous or in segments integral with one or more blades.
SINGLE SHAFT GAS TURBINE – Turbine unit in which all compressors
and turbines in the plant are mounted on one shaft and are coupled in
series arrangement.
SLIP – The failure of the whirl velocity of air at the outlet of the centrifugal
impeller becoming equal to the impeller tip speed.
SLIP FACTOR – Ratio of whirl velocity of air at the outlet of the compressor
(centrifugal type) to the impeller tip speed. This factor limits the work
capacity of the compressor even under isentropic conditions.
SOLIDITY OF A BLADE – The ratio of blade chord to pitch, and ranges

from 1.0 to 2.0.
SONIC VELOCITY – Speed of sound in a gas. This is the velocity at which
a pressure wave is propagated throughout the gas and this velocity
depends upon the pressure and density of the gas.
SPECIFIC POWER – Net horse power developed per kg per second of air
flow.
STAGGER ANGLE – The angle made by the axial direction and the chord
line, a parameter describing the setting of a row of blades of given
form and spacing.
STAGE OF A TURBINE – Unit which consists of the fixed nozzle row (or
fixed blade row) and the moving row of blades which receives the
gases.
STAGNATION ENTHALPY – Enthalpy of a moving gas when brought
to rest isentropically. Also called TOTAL HEAD.
STAGNATION TEMPERATURE – The hypothetical temperature which
would result if all the kinetic energy of a flowing gas were to be
converted into heat under conditions of no gain or loss of heat i.e.,
adiabatic conditions. Also called TOTAL HEAD TEMPERATURE.
This is the sum of static temperature and dynamic temperature.
STALLING – The phenomenon of reduction in the lift force (acting on an air
foil) at higher angles of incidence. Also called LIMIT OF STABILITY.
STATIC HEAD EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the temperature equivalent of
the work output and leaving energy to the isentropic temperature
drop from the total head inlet to the static outlet pressure.
STEADY FLOW – Flow of fluid in which the quantities such as velocity,
pressure, temperature etc., may change from point to point but they
do not vary with time at any particular point.
STRAIGHT COMPOUNDED UNIT – The system in which the low
pressure compressor is driven by the low pressure turbine and the
high pressure compressor by the high pressure turbine. Power is taken
from the low pressure turbine shaft.
SUBSONIC DIFFUSER – A diffuser having a diverging cross-section in
the direction of flow.
Gas Turbines 243
SUPERSONIC DIFFUSER – A diffuser having a converging cross-section

in the direction of flow.
SYMMETRIC STAGE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR – An axial flow
compressor which has symmetric blade arrangement so that the
pressure rise in the moving row and the pressure rise in the fixed row
are equal.
TAPERED BLADES – The turbine blades taper (decrease in depth) from
base to tip, so as to diminish the centrifugal stress at the various sections,
at the base or hub sections of the blade.
TERTIARY ZONE – Portion of the combustion chamber wherein the left
out 50% of air is mixed with the burnt gases so as to cool them down
to the temperature suitable to turbine materials.
THRUST OF A JET – Sum total of the pressure thrust and that due to
change of momentum.
TOTAL HEAD EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the actual work output to the
maximum possible work output that could be obtained with the
existing leaving energy.
TOTAL HEAD PRESSURE – Pressure of the moving fluid corresponding
to the stagnation or total head temperature.
TURBINE MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY – Ratio of shaft horse power
to rotor (internal) horse power.
TURBINE STAGE EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the work delivered to the
rotor per unit of gas flowing divided by the isentropic drop available
in each unit of gas flowing.
TURBO PROP UNIT – The unit in which the gas turbine drives a propeller
and the gases after leaving the turbine are exhausted as a jet to augment
the thrust of the propeller.
TWISTED BLADES – Long turbine blades are usually twisted from hub
to tip so as to compensate for blade velocity variations and in some
cases as well as to satisfy radial pressure equilibrium conditions.
VELOCITY COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE – The turbine in
which the kinetic energy created by the expansion of gas in nozzles is
absorbed in two or more rows of moving blades so as to reduce the
speed of the turbine rotor.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the equivalent volume of free

atmospheric air finally delivered by a compressor to the volume of
free atmospheric air entering the suction pipe of the compressor.
WINDAGE LOSSES – When moving blades come in contact with inactive
fluid, some kind of kinetic energy is imparted to the fluid at the expense
of the kinetic energy of the blades. There is also frictional effect. This
loss is known as windage losses.
WORK RATIO – The ratio of the actual work output (in heat units) to the
isentropic heat drop from the total head inlet to the static outlet
conditions.
CHAPTER
20
INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINE PARTS
AFTER COOLER – A device used on turbocharged engines to cool air

which has undergone compression.
ATDC – After TDC, After top dead centre.
AIR CLEANER – A device mounted on the intake manifold for filtering
out unwanted solid impurities such as dirt and dust from air that is
being drawn into the engine cylinder through the inlet manifold.
AIR COOLED ENGINE – An engine that is cooled by passage of air around
the cylinder, not by passage of a liquid through water jackets.
AIR STANDARD CYCLE – A standard cycle of reference by which the
performance of the different internal combustion engines may be
compared, and their relative efficiencies calculated.
AKROYD ENGINE – The first compression ignition engine, patented by
Akroyd Staurt in 1890.
ALUMINIUM CYLINDER BLOCK – An engine cylinder block cast from
aluminium or aluminium alloy, and which usually has cast iron sleeves
installed for use as cylinder bores.
ANTIFREEZE – A chemical, added to the coolant (usually ethylene glycol)
to lower its freezing point and thereby prevent the coolant from freezing
in cold weather.
ANTI ICING SYSTEM – A carburettor unit designed to prevent formation
of ice on a surface or in a passage.
ARTICULATED CONNECTING ROD – The auxiliary connecting rods
of a radial engine, which work on pins carried by the master rod instead
of on the main crankpin. Also called LINK RODS.
BACK PRESSURE – A pressure exerted by a fluid contrary to the pressure

producing the main flow. For example, pressure in the exhaust manifold,
the higher the back pressure, greater is the resistance to flow of exhaust
gases through the exhaust system. This lowers volumetric efficiency.
BARREL – Refers to the cylinders in an engine or to the number of throttle
bores in a carburettor.
BARREL TYPE CRANKCASE – A petrol engine crankcase so constructed
that the crankshaft can be removed from one end, in more normal
construction, the crankcase is split.
BASE CIRCLE – As applied to camshaft, lowest spot on the cam. Area of
cam that is directly opposite lobe.
BELLOWS – A device, usually metal that can lengthen or shorten much like
an accordian. Some cooling system thermostats are of bellows type.
BIMETAL – A thermostatic bimetal element made up of two different metals
with different heat expansion rates. Temperature changes produce a
bending or distortion movement of the element.
BLOCK (engine) – Basic part of the engine casting containing cylinders.
BLOWBY – Piston rings do not effectively seal compression pressure, and as
such allows hot gases to blow between rings and cylinder wall into the
crankcase. This causes overheating of piston and poor performance.
BLOWER – Supercharger or engine intake air compressor, a low pressure air
pump, usually rotary or centrifugal type.
BLUE PRINTING (engine) – Dismantling the engine and reassembling it
to exact specifications.
BOOST – The amount by which the induction pressure of a super charged
internal combustion engine exceeds atmospheric pressure, expressed
in kg/sqcm.
BORE – A cylinder, hole, or the inside diameter of the cylinder or hole. May
refer to cylinder itself or to diameter of the cylinder.
BORE DIAMETER – Diameter of a hole or a cylinder.
BORING – Renewing or enlarging cylinders by cutting and honing them to
a specified size. Boring bar is used to make the cut.
BORING BAR – Tool used to cut engine cylinders to specific size. As used
in garages, to cut worn cylinders to a new diameter.
Internal Combustion Engine Parts 247
BOTTOM DEAD CENTER (BDC) – Lowest position of the piston in

the cylinder.
BOXED I ROD – Connecting rod in which I beam section has been stiffened
by welding plates on each side of the rod.
BRAKE HORSE POWER (BHP) – Actual usable power delivered by an
engine at the crankshaft for driving a vehicle or any other unit.
Computed using the engine coupled to a dynamometer.
BRAKE MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (BMEP) – Mean effective
pressure (imaginary) which when assumed to be acting on the piston
during the power stroke would result in the given brake horse power
output. Equal to mean indicated pressure times mechanical efficiency.
BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY – Ratio of heat equivalent of power
output in the form of brake horse power to the corresponding heat
input from fuel.
BREAKIN – Period of operation between installation of new or rebuilt parts
and when the parts are worn to the correct fit. Driving at reduced and
varying speed for a specified distance or duration permits parts to wear
out to the correct fit.
BREATHER PIPE – A pipe opening into the interior of an engine i.e.,
crankcase. Used to assist ventilation.
BTDC – Before top dead center, also called BUDC-before upper dead center.
CAM – A rotating lobe of irregular shape or eccentric or offset portion of the
shaft (cam). It changes rotary motion of cam shaft to reciprocating or
variable motion of valve lifter resting on it.
CAM FOLLOWER (valve lifter) – A part which is held in contact with the cam
and to which the cam motion is imparted and transmitted to the push rod.
CAM GROUND PISTON – A piston that is ground slightly oval in shape.
It becomes round as it expands with heat.
CAM NOSE – Also called CAM LOBE. That portion of the cam which
holds the valve wide open. It is the high point of the cam.
CAM SHAFT – The shaft in the engine which has a series of cam lobes
(simply called cams) for operating the valve mechanisms, driven by
gears or sprockets and chain from the crankshaft.
CAM SHAFT GEAR – The gear that is fastened to the cam shaft.
CAST IN SLEEVE – An aluminium cylinder block cast around an iron

cylinder sleeve.
CAST IRON CYLINDER – A one piece cylinder assembly made of cast
iron with a machined bore.
CAST PISTON – A piston made by pouring molten aluminium alloy into
the mould of desired shape.
CENTRIFUGAL GOVERNOR – A governor which uses flyweight force
to sense speed, in order to control the amount of fuel supplied to the
combustion chambers.
CENTRIFUGAL OIL SLINGER – Cup shaped centrifugal oil filter
mounted to the end of the crankshaft. As oil passes through the slinger,
centrifugal force removes impurities that are heavier than oil.
CHROME PLATED RING – A piston compression or oil ring that has its
cylinder wall face lightly plated with hard chrome.
CIRCLIP – A circular clip or snap ring that fits into a groove, used to locate
or retain a shaft or component.
CLEARANCE – The amount of space between two moving parts or between
a moving and a stationary part, such as a journal and a bearing, piston
and cylinder.
CLEARANCE VOLUME – The volume remaining above the piston when
the piston is at TDC.
CLOSED CRANKCASE VENTILATION SYSTEM – A system in which
the crankcase vapours (blow by gases) are discharged into the engine
intake system and pass through the engine cylinder rather than being
discharged into the air.
COATED BORE – Thin coating of chrome or iron applied to the inside of
the cylinder by electroplating, or wire explosion spray coating.
COATED RING – A piston ring having its cylinder wall face coated with
ferrous oxide, soft phosphate or tin. This thin coating helps new rings
to seat by retaining oil and reduces scuffing during breakin.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER – The space at the top of the cylinder and in
the cylinder head or piston or both, in which combustion of fuel and
air charge takes place. The space enclosed by the piston, when the piston
is at TDC.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER VOLUME – The volume of the combustion

chamber when the piston is at TDC, measured in cubic centimeters.
COMBUSTION CYCLE – A series of thermodynamic processes through
which the working gas passes to produce one power stroke. The full
cycle is intake, compression, power and exhaust.
COMPRESSION CHECK – Measurement of compression pressure in all
the cylinders at cranking speed.
COMPRESSION PRESSURE – Pressure in the combustion chamber at the
end of the compression stroke, but without any of the fuel being burned.
COMPRESSION RATIO – The ratio between the total volume of the cylinder
when the piston is at BDC and the volume when the piston is at TDC.
COMPRESSION RELEASE – A device to prevent the intake valve or exhaust
valve from closing completely. This permits the engine crankshaft to
be turned over without compression and with ease. Also called
DECOMPRESSOR.
COMPRESSION RINGS – The upper ring or rings on a piston designed to
hold the compression in the cylinder and prevent or reduce combustion
gas leakage i.e., blowby.
COMPRESSION STROKE – The piston stroke from BDC to TDC during
which both valves are closed and the charge is compressed into a smaller
space creating heat by molecular action.
COMPRESSION TESTER – An instrument for testing the amount of
pressure, or compression, developed in an engine cylinder during
cranking. Also called COMPRESSION GAUGE.
CONNECTING ROD – The rod made of steel or aluminium alloy usually
having an I beam cross-section. A piston pin connects the connecting
rod and the piston.
CONNECTING ROD BEARING – Bearings used in the connecting rod
small end or big end holes.
CONNECTING ROD CAP – The part of the connecting rod big end
assembly that attaches the rod to the crankpin.
CONNECTING ROD TIP – Amount of radial (side) play at the top of
the connecting rod. Measurement of rod tip is one way of determining
the condition of the rod big end bearing.
CONTROLLED PORT SCAVENGING – Scavenging method using ports

which are controlled by valves in addition to the power piston.
COOLANT – The liquid mixture of antifreeze and water circulated in the
cooling system of an engine or machinery.
COOLING SYSTEM – In an engine, the system that removes heat by the
natural or forced circulation of the coolant and thereby prevents engine
overheating. It includes the water jackets, water pump, radiator and
thermostat, or cooling fins, blower and cowl.
CORE (radiator) – A number of coolant passages surrounded by fins through
which air flows to carry away heat from the coolant.
COUNTER FLOW CYLINDER HEAD – has the intake and exhaust
passages on the same side of the cylinder head.
COUNTER WEIGHT – Weights that are mounted on the crankshaft
opposite each crankthrow. These reduce the vibration caused by the
crank and also reduce bearing loads due to inertia of the moving parts.
CRANK – A device for converting reciprocating motion into rotary motion
or vice versa.
CRANKCASE – The lower part of an engine in which the crankshaft rotates.
It consists of the lower section of the cylinder block, and the oil pan.
CRANKCASE VENTILATING SYSTEM – The system that permits air to
flow through the engine crankcase when the engine is running to carryout
the blowby gases and relieve any pressure build up.
CRANKPIN – That part of the crankthrow of the crankshaft to which the
connecting rod is attached.
CRANKPIN RIDGING – A type of crankpin failure typified by deep ridges
worn into the crankpin bearing surfaces.
CRANKSHAFT – The main rotating member, or shaft running along the
length of the engine. Portions of the shaft are offset to form throws or
cranks to which the connecting rods are attached. Crankshaft is
supported by mainbearings.
CRANKSHAFT AXLES – Extension at each end of the crankshaft to provide a
mounting place for main bearings, and alternator rotor of magneto flywheel.
CRANKSHAFT GAUGE – A special type of micrometer which can measure
crankshaft wear without removing the crankshaft from the block.
CRANKSHAFT GEAR – A gear or sprocket, mounted on the front of the

crankshaft. Used to drive the camshaft gear or chain.
CRANKSHAFT WHEEL – Portions of an assembled crankshaft, in the form
of wheels that provide a mounting place for crankpin and crankaxles.
CRANK THROW – One crankpin with its two webs (the amount of offset
of the journal).
CRANK WEB – The portion of the crank throw between the crankpin and
main journal. This makes up the offset.
CRITICAL SPEEDS – Speeds at which the frequency of the power strokes
synchronize with the crankshafts natural frequency. If the engine is
operated at one of its critical speeds for any length of time, a broken
crankshaft may result.
CROSS FLOW CYLINDER HEAD – has the intake and exhaust lines on
opposite sides of the cylinder head.
CYCLE – A series of events which continuously repeat in definite order. In
an engine, the cycle constitutes the four operations that complete the
working process and produce power.
CYLINDER – A round hole or tubular shaped structure in a block or casting
in which a piston reciprocates.
CYLINDER BLOCK – The basic framework of the engine to which the
other engine parts are attached. It includes the engine cylinders and
the upper part of the crankcase.
CYLINDER BORE – Diameter of cylinder opening.
CYLINDER BORING – Bore diameter in a cylinder machined to accept
oversize piston. This renews a worn cylinder.
CYLINDER DEGLAZING – Use of a hone to slightly roughen the cylinder
walls. It produces a cross hatch pattern which aids in seating of new rings.
CYLINDER HEAD – The part that encloses the cylinder bores, used to
cover tops of cylinders. Metal section bolted on top of block. It contains
the water jackets, and on I head engines, the valves. Also forms part of
combustion chamber.
CYLINDER HONE – An expandable rotating tool with abrasive fingers
turned by an electric motor, used to clean and smooth the inside surface
of a cylinder to exact measurements.
CYLINDER LEAKAGE TESTER – A type of cylinder tester that forces

compressed air into the cylinder through the sparkplug hole when the
valves are closed and the piston is at TDC on the compression stroke.
The percentage of compressed air that leaks out is measured, and the
source of leakage accurately pin points the defective part.
CYLINDER SLEEVE – A replaceable sleeve, or liner, put into the cylinder
block to form the cylinder bore. It is either pressed or pushed into the
cylinder block.
DEAD CENTER – Point at which the piston reaches its uppermost or
lowermost position in the cylinder. At these positions, at the end of
the stroke, the crank and connecting rod are in a straight line.
DECARBONIZE – To remove carbon build up on piston, combustion
chamber and other parts.
DECOMPRESSOR – is the device that opens the engine intake or exhaust
valve and retains it in the opened position. The compression effect is
thus reduced and helps easy rotation of the crankshaft at the time of
starting.
DIPSTICK – The metal stick that passes into the oil sump. Used to determine
quantity of oil in the engine sump.
DIRECT COOLED PISTON – A piston which is cooled by the internal
circulation of a liquid.
DISPLACEMENT – In an engine, the total volume of fresh charge an engine
is theoretically capable of drawing into all cylinders during one operating
cycle. The space swept through by the piston in all cylinders in moving
from one end of a stroke to the other.
DOHC ENGINE – An engine having two camshafts over each line of
cylinders, one operating intake valves, and the other operating exhaust
valves. Double overhead camshaft engine.
DRY SLEEVE – A cylinder sleeve (liner) where the sleeve is supported in the
cylinder block metal over its entire length. The coolant does not touch
the sleeve itself.
DYNAMOMETER – A device for absorbing and measuring the power output,
or brake horse power, of an engine. May be an engine dynamometer,
which measures power output at the flywheel, or a chassis dynamometer,
which measures the power output at the driven wheels.
ELEMENT FILTER – A disposable oil or air filter that uses gauze or paper
as filtering material.
ENBLOCK – One piece, such as an engine cylinder block cast in one piece.
ENGINE – A machine that converts heat energy into mechanical energy
(mechanical action in a car). The assembly that burns fuel to produce
power, sometimes referred to as the power plant.
ENGINE DISPLACEMENT – Volume of space through which head of
piston moves in full length of its stroke multiplied by the number of
cylinders in the engine. Result is given in cubic centimetres.
ENGINE TUNE UP – The procedure for checking and adjusting the various
engine components so that the engine is restored to top operating
condition.
ETHYLENE GLYCOL – A chemical compound (solution) added to the
engine coolant to reduce its freezing point and thereby protect the
cooling system against freezing of the coolant.
EXHAUST CUTOUT – Y shaped device placed in the exhaust pipe of an
engine ahead of muffler. Driver may channel exhaust through the
muffler or into the other leg of the Y where the exhaust gases pass out
without going through the muffler.
EXHAUST MANIFOLD – A housing with a series of connecting pipes
between the exhaust ports and the exhaust pipe through which hot
burned gases from the engine cylinders flow.
EXHAUST PIPE – Pipe connecting exhaust manifold to the muffler.
EXHAUST PORT – The opening through which exhaust gases pass from
the cylinders to the manifold.
EXHAUST STROKE – The piston stroke from BDC to TDC during which
the exhaust valve is open so that the burned gases are forced out from
the cylinder.
EXHAUST SYSTEM – A group of parts consisting of the exhaust manifold,
exhaust pipe, muffler, tailpipe and resonator if used.
EXHAUST TUNING – Cutting exhaust pipe to such length that provides
maximum efficiency.
EXHAUST VALVE – The valve which opens to allow burned gases to exhaust from
the engine cylinder into the exhaust manifold during the exhaust stroke.
EXPANSION PLUG – A plug that is slightly dished out and used to seal
core passages in the cylinder block and cylinder head. When driven
into place, it is flattened and expanded to fit tightly.
EXPANSION RATIO – Ratio of the total volume when the piston is at
BDC to the clearance volume when the piston is at TDC (normally
equal to compression ratio).
EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEM – A cooling system in which the
heat finally passes to atmosphere by evaporation of the coolant. This
system may be either open or closed.
FAN (cooling) – The device on the front of the engine that rotates to draw
cooling air through the radiator or around the engine cylinders.
FAST IDLE – Engine idle speed when the carburettor fast idle cam is in
operation. A mechanism on the carburettor, connected to the
automatic choke, that holds the throttle valve slightly open when the
engine is cold so that the engine will idle at the higher rpm as long as
the choke is applied.
F HEAD ENGINE – A type of engine in which some of the valves are in the
cylinder head and some in the cylinder block, giving the F shaped
appearance.
FILTER – That part in the air, lubricating oil or fuel system through which
air, oil or fuel must pass so that dust, dirt or other contaminants are
removed.
FINS (engine) – Thin metal projections on an air cooled engine cylinder
and head, which greatly increase the heat radiating surfaces and help
cooling of the engine cylinder.
FINS (radiator) – Thin metal projections, over which cooling air flows, that
carry heat away from the hot coolant passages to the passing air.
FIRING ORDER – The numerical order in which the engine cylinders fire,
or deliver their power strokes begining with No.1 cylinder.
FLYWHEEL – A heavy rotating metal wheel attached to the crankshaft which
helps even out the power surges from the power strokes and also serves
as part of the clutch and engine cranking system. Acts as power reservoir.
FLYWHEEL RING GEAR – A gear fitted around the flywheel that is engaged
by the teeth on the starting motor drive to crank the engine.
FORGED PISTON – A piston made by hammering hot aluminium into a

mould of desired shape.
FOUR STROKE CYCLE – The four piston strokes of intake, compression,
power and exhaust which make up the complete cycle of events in the
four stroke cycle.
FRICTION HORSE POWER – The power used up by an engine in
overcoming its own internal friction, usually, it increases as engine speed
increases.
FUEL TANK – The storage tank for fuel on the vehicle.
FULL FLOATING PISTON PIN – is one which is free to rotate both in
the piston pin bosses and in the connecting rod small end.
FULL FLOW FILTER – Type of oil filter in which all the oil from the oil
pump flows through the filter.
GASKET – A flat strip, usually of cork or other material, placed between
two non-moving, machined surfaces to provide a tight seal between
them and thereby prevent leakage.
GASKET CEMENT – A liquid adhesive material, or sealer applied on gaskets,
in some applications, the liquid layer of gasket cement is used as the
gasket itself.
GLAZE (cylinder) – The mirror like, very smooth finish that develops on
engine cylinder walls during engine operation.
HEAT DAM – In a piston top land a groove cut out to reduce the size of the
heat path, allowing the piston skirt to run at lower temperature.
HEAT LAND RING – A compression ring having the cross-sectional shape
of the letter L, used as top ring.
HELICOIL – A rethreading device to repair worn or damaged threads. It is
installed in a retapped hole to bring the screw thread down to the
original size.
HORSE POWER (hp) – A measure of the mechanical power, or the rate at which
work is done. One horse power equals 4500 mkg of work per minute.
IDLE SPEED – The speed at which an engine runs without load when the
accelerator pedal is released.
I HEAD ENGINE – An overhead valve (OHV) engine with the valves in
the cylinder head.
IMPELLER – Finned wheel that produces pressure and flow when spun in
an enclosed housing of oil pump or water pump.
INDICATED HORSE POWER (IHP) – The power produced within the
engine cylinders before deducting any frictional loss.
INERTIA – Tendency of a stationary object to resist movement or tendency
of a moving object to continue moving in same direction.
IN LINE ENGINE – An engine in which all engine cylinders are in a single
row, or line.
INTAKE MANIFOLD – is a casting attached to the cylinder head in the case of
a overhead valve engine or to the cylinder block in the case of a side valve
engine. Through the intake manifold fresh charge enters the cylinders.
INTAKE STROKE – The piston stroke from TDC to BDC during which
the intake valve is open and the cylinder receives a charge of air fuel
mixture in a SI engine or air alone in a CI engine.
INTAKE VALVE – The valve that opens to permit fresh charge to enter the
cylinder on the intake stroke.
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE (IC engine) – An engine in which
the fuel is burnt inside the engine.
JACKETS – The water jackets that surround the cylinders through which
the coolant passes.
KINETIC ENERGY – Energy associated with motion. An internal
combustion engine produces kinetic energy (crankshaft rotation).
L HEAD ENGINE – A type of engine with valves located in the cylinder
block, the combustion chamber is L shaped.
LIGHT LOAD TEST – The test applied to storage batteries during which
the voltage is measured while the battery is subjected to a light load,
such as the car head lights.
LIQUID COOLED ENGINE – An engine that is cooled by the circulation
of the liquid coolant around the cylinders.
LOAD TEST – A cranking motor test to measure the current drawn under
normal cranking load.
MAIN BEARINGS – The cylinder block and crankcase unit is provided at
the bottom with split main bearings for supporting the crankshaft
journals.
MANIFOLD – Intake manifold or exhaust manifold. A casting connecting

a series of outlets to a common opening.
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY – In an engine, the ratio between brake
horse power and indicated horse power.
MUFFLER – In the exhaust, a device through which the exhaust gases must
pass and which muffles the sound.
NO LOAD TEST – A cranking motor test in which the cranking motor is
operated without load, the current drawn and the armature speed at the
specified voltage are noted.
OIL CONTROL RING – Piston ring designed to remove excess oil from
the cylinder wall, usually bottom ring.
OIL SUMP – is fastened to the bottom of the crankcase. This protects the
engine from below and is used as a reservoir for lubricating oil in a
four stroke engine.
OPPOSED CYLINDERS – Cylinders positioned opposite each other in
the same plane.
O RING – A circular cross-sectional sealing ring, which is compressed into
the groove to provide sealing action. Seal used in dynamic application
where little or no rotational motion occurs. Also used as a static seal.
OTTO CYCLE – The four operations, namely intake, compression, power
and exhaust form a cycle. Named after the inventor Nikolaus Otto
and is the basic cycle for all SI engines.
OVERCHARGING – Continued charging of a battery after it has reached a
charged condition. This action damages the battery and shortens its life.
OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT (OHC) ENGINE – An engine in which the
camshaft is located in the cylinder head or heads instead of in the
cylinder block.
OVERHEAD VALVE (OHV) ENGINE – An engine in which the valves are
mounted in the cylinder head above the combustion chamber, the
camshaft is usually mounted in the cylinder block, and the valves are
actuated by push rods.
OVER SQUARE ENGINE – An engine which has a bore larger in dimension
than the length of the stroke.
PANCAKE ENGINE – An engine with two rows of cylinders which are
opposed and on the same plane, usually set horizontally in a vehicle.
PISTON – A cylindrical part, closed at one end, which moves up and down
in the cylinder. Open end is attached to the connecting rod.
Combustion pressure is exerted on closed end of piston, causing
connecting rod to move and crankshaft to turn.
PISTON CROWN – Top of piston, directly exposed to combustion pressure
and heat.
PISTON DISPLACEMENT – The cylinder volume displaced by the piston
as it moves from the bottom to the top of the cylinder during one
complete stroke.
PISTON PIN – Also called wrist pin. The cylindrical or tubular metal piece
that attaches the piston to the connecting rod.
PISTON PIN BOSS – A strengthened section of piston wall extending to
inside of piston crown. It supports piston pin.
PISTON PIN HOLE – Machined hole through piston wall where piston
pin and retaining circlips are mounted.
PISTON RINGS – Rings fitted into grooves in the piston. These are two
types: Compression rings for sealing the compression into the
combustion chamber and oil rings to scrape excess oil off the cylinder
wall and thereby prevent it from working up into and burning in the
combustion chamber.
PISTON RING COATINGS – of relatively soft substances such as
phosphate, graphite, and iron oxide aid effective wear in and prevents
rapid wear of the ring.
PISTON RING COMPRESSOR – A special tool used in engine overhaul
work to compress the piston rings inside the piston grooves so that
the piston and rings assembly may be installed in the engine cylinder.
PISTON RING END GAP – Distance between ends of a piston ring when
installed in the cylinder. The clearance is measured with a feeler gauge,
keeping the piston at BDC.
PISTON RING GROOVE – Grooves machined in the piston external surface
to accept piston rings.
PISTON SEIZURE – Overheating of piston to the point where it will no
longer move freely in the cylinder.
PISTON SKIRT – The lower part of the piston below the piston pin hole.
PISTON SLAP – A hollow, muffled, bell like sound made by an excessively

loose piston slapping the cylinder wall at dead centre positions.
POPPET VALVE – A mushroom shaped valve, widely used in internal
combustion engines.
PORT (cylinder) – In an engine, the valve port or opening in which the
valve operates and through which the charge or burned gases pass.
POWER – Rate at which work is done.
POWER PLANT – The engine or power producing mechanism in the vehicle.
POWER STROKE – The piston stroke from TDC to BDC during which
the charge burns and forces the piston down so that the engine produces
power.
PRESSURE TESTER – An instrument that clamps in the radiator filler
neck, and is used to pressure test the cooling system for leaks.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE – The systematic inspection, detection
and correction of failures in an engine or in a vehicle, either before
they occur, or before they develop into major defects.
PUSH ROD – In the I head engine, the rod between the valve lifter and
rocker arm.
RADIATOR – A heat exchanger which reduces coolant temperature in a
liquid cooling system.
RADIUS RIDE – In a reground crankshaft, if the radius of the journal, where
it comes up to the crank cheek, is not cut away enough, the journal will
ride on the edge of the bearing. The contact is called radius ride.
REBORE – To bore out a cylinder larger than its original size.
RECIPROCATING ENGINE – Also called piston engine. An engine in
which the piston moves up and down or back and forth, as a result of
combustion in the top of the cylinder.
RING EXPANDER – A special tool used to expand piston rings for installation
on the piston.
RING LAND – Solid area of piston which supports rings, located between
ring grooves.
RING RIDGE – A ridge left at the top of a cylinder as the cylinder wall
below it is worn by piston ring movement.
RING RIDGE REMOVER – A special tool used for removing the ring
ridge from the cylinder.
ROCKER ARM – In an I head engine, a device that rocks on a shaft or
pivots on a stud as the cam actuates the push rod causing the valve to
open.
ROD BOLTS – Special bolts used on the connecting rod to attach the cap.
Sometimes lock nuts are provided.
ROD SMALL END – The end of the connecting rod through which a
piston pin passes to connect the piston to the connecting rod.
ROD BIG END – The end of the connecting rod that attaches around the
crankpin.
RPM – Revolutions per minute.
REVERSE FLUSHING – A method of cleaning a radiator or an engine
cooling system by flushing in the direction opposite to normal coolant
flow.
SCORED – Scratched or grooved, as a cylinder wall may be scored by abrasive
particles moved up and down by the piston rings.
SCRAPER – A device in engine service, to scrape carbon etc., from engine
block, piston etc.
SCRAPER RING – On a piston, a type of oil control ring designed to scrape
excess oil from cylinder wall and cause it to flow down into the crankcase.
SCREEN – A fine mesh screen in the fuel or lubricating systems that prevents
large particles (dirt and particles of dust) from entering the system.
SCUFFING – A type of wear of moving parts characterized by transfer of
material from one to other part and results in pits and grooves.
SEALER – A thick, tacky compound usually spread with a brush, which
may be used as a gasket or sealant, to seal small openings or surface
irregularities.
SEAT – The surface on which another part rests, such as a valve seat. Also,
applied to the process of a part wearing into fit, for example piston
rings seat after a few kilometers of driving.
SEMIFLOATING PISTON PIN – is clamped in the piston pin bosses and
free to rotate in the connecting rod small end or clamped in the
connecting rod small end and free to rotate in the piston pin bosses.
SEVERE RINGS – Piston rings which exert relatively high pressure against the
cylinder walls, some times by the use of an expander spring behind the ring.
Such rings can be used in an engine having excessive cylinder wear.
SHROUD – A hood placed around an engine cooling fan to improve fan
(cooling) action.
SIAMESED CRANKSHAFT – Crankshaft configuration where two rods
are mounted on the same crankpin (journal). One rod is forked and
the other rod is mounted on inside of the fork.
SIDE BY SIDE CRANKSHAFT – Crankshaft configuration where
connecting rods are mounted next to each other on the same crankpin
(journal).
SINGLE PIECE CONNECTING ROD – has small end, rod or shank and
big end as one unit. This is used in most of the small two stroke engines
meant for two wheelers.
SPRING (valve) – A coiled wire that varies its length by flexing, and twisting.
SPRING FREE LENGTH – The length of the spring when measured without
any load on it.
SPRING MECHANICAL PRELOAD – The length or pressure of a spring,
measured while it is in the installed condition.
SPRING RATE – The amount of force necessary to compress a spring a
specific distance, kilograms per centimeter, to indicate the stiffness or
softness of a spring.
SPRING RETAINER – In the valve train, the piece of metal that holds
the springs in place and is itself locked in place by the valve spring
retainer locks.
SPRING RETAINER LOCK – The locking device on the valve stem that
locks the spring retainer in place.
SQUARE ENGINE – An engine having the bore and stroke of equal
measurements.
SQUISH – The action (radial inward air motion) in some combustion chambers
in which the last part of the compressed charge is pushed, or squirted, out
of a decreasing space between the piston and the cylinder head.
STIRLING ENGINE – A typical internal combustion engine in which the
piston is moved by the changing pressure of a working gas that is
alternately heated and cooled.
STROKE – In an engine, the distance that the piston moves from BDC to
TDC or vice versa.
SUMP – A system for storing lubricating oil, either in the crankcase (wet
sump) or in a separate tank (dry sump).
SUPER CHARGER – A device in the intake system of an engine which
pressurizes the ingoing charge. This increases the mass of charge (air
fuel mixture) burned and thus increases engine output. If the supercharger
is driven by the engine exhaust gas turbine, it is called
TURBOCHARGER.
TANK UNIT – The unit of the fuel indicating system that is mounted in
the fuel tank.
TAIL PIPE – carries the exhaust gases from the muffler and exhausts the
same into the atmosphere. The tail pipe end is sometime cut on a bias
(at an angle) to reduce exhaust noise.
THERMAL EFFICIENCY – Relationship between the power output and
the energy in the fuel burned to produce the output.
THERMOSTAT – A temperature sensitive device used in a cooling system
to adjust flow of coolant as coolant temperature changes.
THERMOSTATICALLY CONTROLLED AIR CLEANER – An air cleaner
which uses a thermostat to control the preheating of intake air.
THROW A ROD – Expression used to designate an engine with a loose,
knocking connecting rod bearing, or an engine that has broken a
connecting rod and showed it through the cylinder block or oil pan.
TIMING – In the engine, refers to timing of valves, and timing of ignition,
and their relation to piston position in the cylinder.
TIMING CHAIN – A chain driven by a sprocket on the crankshaft, that
drives the sprocket on the camshaft.
TIMING GEARS – are a pair of meshing gears (one bigger gear mounted
on the camshaft and another smaller gear mounted on the crankshaft)
meant for driving the camshaft at the required speed ratio by the
crankshaft.
TOP DEAD CENTRE (TDC) – The piston position at which the piston
has moved to the top of the cylinder and the centre line of the
connecting rod is parallel to the cylinder wall.
TORQUE – The twisting force at the end of the crank shaft multiplied by
the distance of this force application from the shaft centre, measured
in kilogram meters or Newton meters.
TORSIONAL VIBRATION – Back and forth motion around a turning
centre. Vibration in a rotary direction that causes a twist-untwist action
on a rotating shaft, a rotating shaft that repeatedly moves ahead or lags
behind the remainder of the shaft; for example, the actions of a
crankshaft responds to the cylinder firing impulses.
TUNED INTAKE SYSTEM – An intake system in which the manifold has the
proper length and volume to introduce a ramjet or supercharging effect.
TUNE UP – The procedure of inspection, testing and adjusting an engine and
replacing any worn parts to restore the engine to its best performance.
TURBOCHARGER – A supercharger driven by the gas turbine which is
operated by the engine exhaust gases.
TWO STROKE CYCLE – The series of events namely intake, compression,
power and exhaust all of which take place in two piston strokes. Also
called TWO CYCLE in a short form.
V ENGINE – An engine with two banks of cylinders set at an angle to each
other to form a V.
VALVE – A device that can be opened or closed to allow or stop the flow of
a fluid (liquid or gas or vapour) from one to another place.
VALVE CLEARANCE – The clearance between the rocker arm and the valve
stem tip in an overhead valve engine: The clearance in the valve train
when the valve, is in the closed position. Also called VALVE LASH.
VALVE FLOAT – The condition that exists when an engine valve does not
follow the cam profile, failure of the valve to close at the proper time.
VALVE GRINDING – Refacing a valve in a valve facing machine.
VALVE GUIDE – The cylindrical part in the cylinder block or head in which
the valve is assembled and in which valve stem moves up and down.
VALVE LIFTER – Also called lifter, tappet, valve tappet and cam follower.
A cylindrical part of the engine, which rests on a cam of the camshaft
and is lifted, by cam action, so that the valve is opened.
VALVE LIFTER FOOT – The bottom end of the valve lifter, the part that
rides on the cam lobe.
VALVE OVERLAP – Number of degrees of crankshaft rotation through

which both the intake and exhaust valves are open together.
VALVE ROTATOR – Device used in place of the valve spring retainer, it has
a built in mechanism to rotate the valve slightly each time it opens.
VALVE SEAT – The surface in the cylinder head or cylinder block against
which the valve face comes to rest.
VALVE SEAT INSERT – Metal rings inserted in the valve seats, usually
exhaust, they are of special metal which can withstand high temperature
and exhibit minimum wear at these temperatures.
VALVE SEAT RECESSION – Also known as lash loss, the tendency for
the valves, in some engines run on unleaded gasoline, to contact the
seat in such a way that the seat wears away, or recesses into the cylinder
head.
VALVE STEM – The long, thin cylindrical section of the valve that fits and
moves in the valve guide.
VALVE TIMING – The timing of valve opening and closing in relation to
piston position in the cylinder.
VALVE TRAIN – The valve operating mechanism of an engine, from the
camshaft of the valve.
VEE CYLINDERS – Cylinders positioned at angles to each other forming
the shape of the letter V.
VIBRATION DAMPER – is attached to the crankshaft in order to control
the torsional vibration caused by the power impulses.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY – Ratio between the amount of fresh charge
that actually enters an engine cylinder and the theoretical amount
that could enter under ideal conditions.
WANKEL ENGINE – A rotary type engine, in which a three lobe rotor
turns eccentrically in a specially shaped housing.
WET LINER – When fitted in the cylinder block has water on the external
surface of the liner. Good cooling is realized by having the water in
direct contact with the liner.
WRIST PIN – A cylindrical (solid or hollow) pin that attaches the piston to
the connecting rod.
CHAPTER
21
SPARK IGNITION ENGINES
ACCELERATOR – Device for rapid control of speed, for quick opening

and closing of the throttle. It is a foot or hand operated, spring returned,
linked to the throttle valve in the carburettor. The minimum throttle
opening is controlled by the setting of the throttle screw.
ACCELERATOR PUMP – In the carburettor, a small pump linked to
the accelerator which momentarily injects a charge of fuel into the
intake tract in addition to that supplied by the normal metering
components, and thus enriches the mixture when the accelerator
pedal is depressed.
ADVANCE – Setting the ignition timing so that spark occurs before the
piston reaches top dead center.
AIR BLEED – An opening into a gasoline passage through which air can
pass or bleed into the gasoline as it moves through the passage, to
weaken the air fuel mixture.
AIR FUEL MIXTURE – Finely atomized mist of fuel and air necessary for
combustion. This mixture consists of approximately 15 parts air to
one part fuel (15 : 1) at cruising speed.
AIR FUEL RATIO – The proportion of air to fuel in the working charge of
an internal combustion engine, or in other combustible mixtures,
expressed by weight for liquid fuels and by volume for gaseous fuels.
AIRGAP (spark plug) – Distance between centre and side electrodes, in a
spark plug. Spark jumps across this gap.
AIR HORN – In the carburettor, the tubular passage through which the
incoming air must pass.
AIR JET – A small jet in the air passage of a carburettor. This jet meters the
amount of air fed to the diffuser in an air bleed type carburettor.
ANTIKNOCK SUBSTANCES – Substances added to petrol to lessen its
tendency to detonate, or knock in an engine, i.e., Tetra ethyl lead.
ANTIKNOCK VALUE – The relative immunity of a volatile liquid fuel
from detonation, or knocking, in a petrol engine, as compared with
some standard fuel.
ANTIPERCOLATOR – Device for venting vapours from main discharge
tube or well of a carburettor.
ANTI SIPHON SYSTEM – Use of a small passage designed into a carburettor
to prevent fuel from siphoning from the float bowl into the engine.
ATOMIZED – Tiny particles of fuel mixed with air, making a fine mist.
AUTOMATIC CHOKE – A carburettor choke device (valve) that
automatically positions itself in accordance with carburettor needs or
engine temperature.
AUTOVAC – A vacuum operated mechanism for raising fuel from a tank
situated below the level of the carbutettor to a position from which it
may be fed to the latter by gravity.
BACKFIRE – (1) Premature ignition during starting of an internal
combustion engine, resulting in an explosion before the end of
compression stroke, and consequent reversal in the direction of
rotation. (2) An explosion of live gases accumulated in the exhaust
system due to incomplete combustion in the cylinder.
BACKFIRE (intake system) – Preexplosion of air fuel mixture so that the
explosion passes the open intake valve and flashes back through the
intake manifold. May be caused by faulty timing, crossed plug wires,
leaky intake valve etc.
BACK KICK – Violent reversal of an internal combustion engine crankshaft
rotation, during starting due to backfire.
BALANCED CARBURETTOR – Carburettor in which the float bowl is
vented into the air horn, below the air cleaner, to compensate for the
effects of a clogged air filter.
BATTERY COIL IGNITION – High tension supply for sparking plugs, in
automobiles, in which the interruption of a primary current from a
Spark Ignition Engines 267
battery induces a high secondary emf in another winding on the same

magnetic circuit, the high potential being distributed in synchronism
with the contact breaker in the primary circuit and the engine firing
order.
BERNOULLIS PRINCIPLE – Given a fluid flowing through a tube, any
constriction or narrowing of the tube will create an increase in the
fluid velocity and a decrease in pressure. This principle is used in the
venturi tube of the carburettor.
BOOST VENTURI – also called secondary venturi is a smaller venturi or
restriction, incorporated in some carburettors in the middle of the primary
venturi. It increases air speed, vacuum created and hence fuel flow.
BOWL VENT – is an opening in the carburettor float chamber. This hole
prevents pressure or vacuum from building up in the bowl.
BREAKER ARM – The movable arm upon which one of the breaker points
of the ignition system is affixed.
BREAKER POINTS (ignition) – Pair of points, one fixed and another
movable, that are opened and closed to break and make the primary
circuit. When the circuit is broken by opening the points, the spark
plug fires.
BUTTERFLY VALVE – A type of valve used for choke and throttle valve in
a carburettor that is so named due to its resemblance to the insect of
same name. This valve controls charge flow.
CAM ANGLE (ignition) – Number of degrees breaker cam rotates from
the time breaker points close until they open again. Also called DWELL
ANGLE.
CAPACITOR DISCHARGE IGNITION (CDI) – An electronic ignition
system designed to produce very high voltage, consisting of an exciter
coil, a capacitor, diode, trigger coil, silicon controlled rectifier and ac
ignition coil.
CARBURETION – The actions that take place in the carburettor, converting
liquid fuel to vapour and mixing it with air to form a combustible
mixture.
CARBURETTOR – The mixing device in the fuel system which meters and
mixes gasoline into the air stream (vaporizing gasoline as it does so) in
varying proportions to suit engine operating conditions.
CARBURETTOR ADAPTER – Adapter used to fit or place one type of

carburettor on an intake manifold that may not be originally designed
for it.
CARBURETTOR CIRCUITS – Series of passages and units designed to
perform a specific functions—idle circuit, full power circuit etc.
CARBURETTOR ICING – Formation of ice on throttle plate or valve. As
fuel nozzles feed fuel into air horn it turns to a vapour. This robs heat
from air. When weather conditions are just right (fairly cold and quite
humid) ice may form.
CARBURETTOR INSULATOR – A spacer, or insulator, used to prevent
excess engine heat from reaching the carburettor.
CENTRIFUGAL ADVANCE (distributor) – Unit designed to advance and
retard ignition timing through action of centrifugal force resulting from
changes in engine speed.
CHOKE – Near the top of the carburettor, a butterfly valve that is closed
when starting a cold engine. It chokes off the air flow through the air
horn, producing a partial vacuum in the air horn for greater fuel delivery
and a richer mixture supply to the engine.
CHOKE STOVE – Heating compartment in or on the exhaust manifold
from which hot air is drawn to the automatic choke device.
COIL (ignition) – Unit used to step up the relatively low voltage supplied
by the battery to the extent necessary to create a spark across the spark
plug terminals.
COIL BUILDUP – Build up of a magnetic field while current is flowing
through primary windings of the coil.
COLD PLUG – has a shorter heat path. Hence it runs at a much lower
temperature than a hot plug.
COMBUSTION LAG TIME – A period of slow burning that occurs before
the burning of the air fuel mixture, which spreads throughout the engine
combustion chamber.
CONDENSER (ignition) – Unit installed between breaker points and coil
to prevent arcing at breaker points. Condenser absorbs and retains
momentary surge of current when the breaker points open.
CONSTANT CHOKE CARBURETTOR – is the carburettor in which
the air and fuel flow passages (i.e., areas) are always maintained to be
constant. But the pressure difference or depression which causes the

flow of fuel is being varied as per the demand on the engine.
CONSTANT VACUUM CARBURETTOR – is the carburettor in which
the air and fuel flow areas are being varied as per the demand on the
engine, while the depression or vacuum is maintained to be always same.
CONTACT POINTS – In the conventional ignition system, the stationary
and the movable points in the primary circuit, usually made of
tungsten, platinum or silver. Also called BREAKER POINTS.
CONVENTIONAL IGNITION – Ignition system which uses breaker points.
CRITICAL COMPRESSION RATIO – The lowest compression ratio at
which any particular fuel air mixture will ignite by compression under
prescribed test procedure. The lower the critical compression ratio,
the better ignition qualities the fuel has (Gasoline engine 4 :1, oil engine
7 :1 diesel engine 12.5 :1).
DASHPOT (carburettor) – A device in the carburettor that prevents
excessively sudden closing of the throttle.
DETONATION – A violent, instantaneous explosion of the final portion
of the burning combustion gases caused by an excessive rise of pressure
and temperature, also called AUTO IGNITION.
DIESELING – A condition in which a spark ignition engine continues to
run after the ignition is shut off. Also called RUNNING ON.
DISTRIBUTOR (ignition) – Unit designed to make and break the ignition
primary circuit and to distribute resultant high voltage to the proper spark
plug in the cylinder at the correct time. Rarely used in motor cycles.
DISTRIBUTOR CAP (ignition) – Insulated cap containing a central terminal
with series (one per cylinder) of terminals that are evenly spaced in
circular pattern around the central terminal. Secondary high voltage
travels to central terminal where it is then channeled to one of the outer
terminals by the rotor.
DOWN DRAFT CARBURETTOR – Carburettor air horn is so arranged
that the air passes downward through the carburettor on its way into
the intake manifold.
DUAL BREAKER POINTS (ignition) – Distributor using two sets of breaker
points to increase cam angle so that even at high speeds, spark with
sufficient intensity will be produced.
DUAL CARBURETTOR – An engine on which two carburettors have been

mounted.
DWELL ANGLE – The number of degrees on the breaker cam during which
the breaker points are kept closed.
DWELL METER – A device used to measure the number of degrees that
the ignition contact points remain closed.
DYNAMIC TIMING – A test of ignition timing made with the strobe
light.
ECONOMIZER VALVE – Fuel flow control device within the carburettor.
ELECTRIC ASSIST CHOKE – A choke which uses a small electric heating
element to warm the choke spring, causing it to release more quickly.
This reduces exhaust emissions during the start up of a cold engine.
ELECTRODE (spark plug) – Centre electrode rod passing through the
insulator forms one electrode. The rod welded to the shell forms
another. They are referred as centre and side electrodes.
ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTION – A fuel injection system used for
injecting gasoline into the spark ignition engines, which has an
electronic control system to time and meter the fuel injected.
ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEM – An ignition system using
transistors, which does not have mechanical contact breaker points in
the distributor, but uses the distributor for distributing the secondary
voltage to the spark plugs.
ERODED PISTON (crown) – A condition caused by detonation or
preignition where the gas temperatures are raised so high that part of
piston crown is heated and melted away.
ESC – Electronic spark control.
ENERGY TRANSFER MAGNETO – A self powered ignition system that
consists of a flywheel with permanent magnets that rotate around a
laminated core with coil windings, an induction coil, contact points
and capacitor.
FLAME FRONT – The glowing layer of flame that separates the burned
charge from the unburned charge in a SI engine during combustion
process. The flame front should move in a controlled pattern across
the cylinder.
FLAME VELOCITY – is the speed with which the flame front travels inside
the combustion chamber. This affects combustion phenomena,
development of pressure and production of power.
FLASH OVER – A condition that occurs when a spark jumps across the
surface of a spark plug insulator from the terminal.
FLAT SPOT – A point during acceleration when the engine seems to loose
power for an instant.
FLOAT BOWL – In the carburettor, the reservoir from which gasoline feeds
into the passing air. Also called FLOAT CHAMBER.
FLOAT LEVEL – The float position at which the needle valve closes fuel
inlet to the carburettor to prevent further delivery of fuel.
FLOAT SYSTEM – The system in the carburettor that controls the entry of
fuel and fuel level in the float bowl.
FLOODED – A term used to indicate that the engine cylinders received an
air fuel mixture too rich to burn.
FOUR BARREL CARBURETTOR – A carburettor with four throttle valves.
In effect two, two barrel carburettors in a single assembly.
FUEL FILTER – A screen used to prevent contaminants in the fuel from
entering the carburettor or fuel pump.
FUEL LINE – The pipe or tube through which fuel travels from the tank to
the fuel pump and from the pump to the carburettor.
FUEL NOZZLE – The tube in the carburettor through which gasoline feeds
from the float bowl into the passing air. In a fuel injection system, the
tube that delivers the fuel into the compressed air or passing air stream.
FUEL PUMP – The electrical or mechanical device in the fuel system which
transfers fuel from the fuel tank to the carburettor.
FUEL SCREW – A fine point screw that projects into the slow jet outlet
passage, used to adjust the fuel mixture at slow speeds, located at the
engine side of the carburettor.
FUEL SYSTEM – In an automobile, the system that delivers to the engine
cylinders, the combustible mixture of vaporized fuel and air. It consists
of fuel tank, lines, gauge, carburettor, fuel pump and intake manifold.
FULL ADVANCE – The point at which the advance unit will no longer
continue advancing ignition timing.
FULL THROTTLE – A wide open throttle position with the accelerator

pressed all the way down to the floor board.
HEAT RANGE – A term used to describe the ability of a spark plug to carry
away heat. Plugs with longer nosed insulators take longer path and
time to carry heat off effectively.
HEMISPHERICAL COMBUSTION CHAMBER – A combustion
chamber shaped like a round dome, allowing use of large valves placed
opposite each other in the chamber.
HIGH SPEED CIRCUIT – The circuit in the carburettor that supplies fuel
into the air passing through the air horn during, medium and high
speed, part to full throttle operation.
HIGHEST USEFUL COMPRESSION RATIO – is the compression ratio
at which a fuel test engine can be operated without detonation with any
mixture strength or with any ignition timing, at a speed of 1500 rpm.
HOLED PISTON – A condition caused by severe detonation or preignition,
where a hole is eaten or burned through the piston crown, as a result
of extreme heat and pressure.
HOT PLUG – has a longer heat path, hence it runs at a much higher
temperature than a cold plug.
IDLE MIXTURE – The air fuel mixture supplied to an engine during idle.
The mixture is usually rich. The idle mixture screw(s) are sometimes
adjusted as a part of tune up.
IDLE MIXTURE ADJUSTMENT SCREW – The adjustment screw in
some carburettors, that can be turned in or out to vary the quality of
the idle mixture.
IDLE SYSTEM – In the carburettor, the passages through which fuel is fed
when the engine is idling.
IGNITION (spark) – In an engine, the act of spark in starting the combustion
process in the cylinder.
IGNITION ADVANCE – To set the ignition timing, so that a spark occurs
earlier or more degrees before TDC.
IGNITION COIL – That part of the ignition system which acts as a
transformer to step up the battery voltage to many thousand volts, the
high voltage surge then produces a spark at the spark plug gap.
IGNITION DISTRIBUTOR – That part of the ignition system, which

opens and closes the circuit to the ignition coil with correct timing
and distributes to the proper spark plugs the resulting high voltage
surges from the ignition coil.
IGNITION SWITCH – The switch in the ignition system which is operated
with a key to open and close the ignition primary circuit.
IGNITION SYSTEM – The part of the electrical system that provides high
voltage sparks to the engine cylinder to fire the compressed air fuel
mixture, consisting of a voltage source, timing device, capacitor, ignition
coil, secondary wiring and spark plugs.
IGNITION TIMING – is the crank angle at which spark occurs relative to
the top dead center, during compression stroke.
INTAKE MANIFOLD (SI engine) – The part of the engine that provides
a series of passages from the carburettor to the engine cylinders through
which air fuel mixture can flow.
INTAKE STROKE – The piston movement from TDC to BDC that occurs
as the intake valve opens. This movement causes entry of fresh charge.
JET – A calibrated passage in the carburettor through which fuel flows.
KNOCKING COMBUSTION – is the autoignition or instantaneous
ignition of the end charge due to the compression of the same by the
expansion and radiation heat of the burning charge.
LEAN MIXTURE – An air fuel mixture that has a relatively high proportion
of air and a low proportion of fuel.
LOW SPEED CIRCUIT – The circuit in the carburettor that supplies fuel
to the air passing through the air horn during low speed, part throttle
operation.
MAIN FUEL NOZZLE – The fuel nozzle in the carburettor venturi that
supplies fuel when the throttle is opened partially to fully opened
position.
MANIFOLD VACUUM – The vacuum in the intake manifold that develops
as a result of the vacuum in the cylinders on their intake strokes.
METERING ROD AND JET – A device, consisting of a small movable
rod, which has a varied diameter, and a jet (which accommodates the
movable rod) that increases or decreases fuel passage and hence the
flow of fuel according to engine throttle opening, engine load or a

combination of both.
MISSING – In the engine, the failure of the air fuel mixture in a cylinder to
ignite when it should and thus causing the engine to run roughly.
MULTIPOINT FUEL INJECTION (MPFI) – has one injector for each
cylinder. Fuel is injected in more than one location. This is often called
port injection.
NORMAL COMBUSTION – refers to the combustion of the entire air
fuel mixture in the SI engine combustion chamber, layer by layer by
the moving flame.
OCTANE NUMBER OF A FUEL – is the percentage by volume of iso-
octane in a mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane which will exhibit the
same antiknock characteristic of the fuel under test, when tested in a
standard (CFR) engine, under a set of standard test conditions.
OCTANE RATING – The number indicating the quality of gasoline based
on its ability to resist knock. The higher the number, the better the
quality. Higher compression engines require higher octane fuel.
OPTIMUM SPARK TIMING – is the ignition timing which will cause
that half of the pressure rise occurs at dead center. This happens in
practice when 75 per cent of the charge burns after ignition.
PERCOLATION – A condition in which the fuel actually “boils” due to
excess heat. Percolation prevents proper atomization of the fuel causing
rough running.
PERFORMANCE NUMBER – is the ratio of knock limited imep with the
fuel in question to the knock limited imep with iso-octane when the
inlet pressure is used as the dependent variable.
PING – A metallic ratling sound produced by the engine under acceleration.
It is usually due to incorrect ignition timing or poor grade of gasoline.
POST COMBUSTION ACTIVITY – The last phase of combustion, during
which the piston descends, the volume inside the cylinder increases,
and the cylinder eliminates spent gases.
POWER PISTON – In some carburettors, a vacuum operated piston that
allows additional fuel to flow at wide open throttle to permit delivery
of a richer air fuel mixture to the engine.
PREIGNITION – Abnormal combustion that occurs when the air fuel mixture
ignites before the spark plug fires and this is due to some hot spot.
PRIMARY IGNITION CIRCUIT – Section of the ignition circuit including
contact points, condenser and primary winding of ignition coil, power
supply (battery or ignition generating coil), ignition switch and related
wiring.
PRIMARY WINDING – Part of an ignition coil, a separate winding of
heavy wire wound a few hundred turns around a laminated steel core.
QUENCH – The space in some combustion chambers which absorbs enough
heat to quench or extinguish the combustion flame front as it approaches
a relatively cold cylinder wall. This prevents detonation of the end gas
but results in hydrocarbon emission.
REED VALVE – A type of valve used in the crankcase of some two cycle
engines. Air fuel mixture enters the crankcase through the reed valve,
which then closes as pressure builds up in the crankcase.
RESISTOR SPARK PLUG – A spark plug incorporating a resistor to shorten
the spark duration. This suppresses radio interference and lengthens plug
life.
RICH MIXTURE – An air fuel mixture with high proportion of fuel.
RISE TIME – The length of time between the begining of the voltage at the
plug and the begining of the spark.
RUN ON – Condition when a SI engine continues to run, even when the
ignition key is turned off. Also called DIESELING.
SECONDARY IGNITION CIRCUIT – Part of the ignition circuit
consisting of secondary windings of ignition coil, spark plug wire, spark
plug terminal and spark plug.
SECONDARY WINDING – Part of an ignition coil, a winding of fine wire
wound many thousands of turns around a laminated steel core.
SIDE DRAUGHT CARBURETTOR – also called horizontal carburettor,
consists of a horizontal mixing tube, with the float chamber on the side
of it.
SINGLE POINT INJECTION – has one or two injectors mounted inside
the throttle body assembly. Fuel is sprayed into one point or location
at the centre of the engine intake manifold. Single point injection (SPI)
is also called throttle body injection (TBI).
SPARK ADVANCE – The adjustment in ignition timing made by the timing
device for changes in load, speed or other conditions.
SPARK DURATION – The length of time spark occurs at a spark plug.
SPARK PLUG – The assembly, which includes a pair of electrodes and an
insulator, that has the purpose of providing a spark gap in the engine
cylinder.
SPARK PLUG HEAT RANGE – The distance heat must travel from the
centre electrode to reach the outer shell of the plug and enter the
cylinder head.
SPARK PLUG REACH – is the length of the threaded portion of the spark
plug. This is the distance between the end of the plug threads and the
seat or sealing surface of the plug.
SQUISH – is the radial inward or transverse gas motion that occurs towards
the end of the compression stroke, when a portion of the piston head
approaches the cylinder head closely.
STATIC TIMING – The test of ignition timing made with a buzzbox or a
continuity light while the engine is at rest.
STRATIFIED CHARGE ENGINE – In a gasoline fuel, spark ignition
engine, a type of combustion chamber in which the flame starts in a
very rich pocket or layer of fuel air mixture and after ignition, spreads
to the leaner mixture filling the rest of the combustion chamber. The
diesel engine is a stratified charge engine.
SURFACE IGNITION – is the ignition of the air fuel mixture by any hot
spot in the combustion chamber.
S/V RATIO – The ratio of surface area of the combustion chamber to its
volume, with the piston at the top dead centre. Often used as a comparative
indicator of hydrocarbon (HC) emission levels from an engine.
THROTTLE (valve) – A round disc valve in the throttle body of the
carburettor that can be turned by the driver to admit more or less air
fuel mixture, thereby control the engine speed.
THROTTLE CRACKER – Linkage from the starting motor switch to the
throttle, which opens the throttle slightly when the engine is being cranked.
THROTTLE RETURN CHECK – A device in the carburettor which

prevents excessively sudden closing of the throttle, also called dashpot.
TIMING LIGHT – A light that is connected to the ignition system to flash
each time the number one spark plug fires, used for adjusting the timing
of the ignition spark.
TIMING UNIT – A device that determines, when the ignition system fires
the spark plugs.
TRANSISTOR ASSISTED CONTACT IGNITION (TAC) – An ignition
system similar to battery point ignition but which uses a transistor to
eliminate heavy current flow at the contact points.
TRANSISTOR POINTLESS IGNITION – A battery assisted ignition system
using a pulse generator to trigger a transistor to fire the spark plug.
TURBULENCE – The state of being violently disturbed. In the engine, the
rapid swirling motion imparted to the air fuel mixture entering the
cylinder.
TURNS RATIO – The ratio of the number of coils in the primary and
secondary windings of an ignition coil.
TWO BARREL CARBURETTOR – A dual carburettor in which there are
two throttle valves.
UNIT DISTRIBUTOR – An ignition distributor, used by General Motors,
that uses a magnetic pick up coil, and timer core instead of points and
condenser. It has the ignition coil assembled in the distributor as a unit.
UPDRAFT CARBURETTOR – is the carburettor in which the air fuel
mixture flows upward. This unit can be placed on the side of the
engine.
VACUUM ADVANCE – A method of advancing the ignition timing by
applying engine vacuum to a diaphragm mounted on the distributor.
VACUUM GAUGE – In automotive engine service, a device that measures
intake manifold vacuum and thereby indicates action of engine
components.
VAPOUR LOCK – A condition in the fuel system in which gasoline has
vapourized and turned to bubbles in the fuel line, or fuel pump so that
fuel delivery to the carburettor is prevented or retarded.
VAPOURIZATION – is the process of changing the liquid or atomized fuel
into a vapour.
VENTURI – In the carburettor, the restriction in the air horn that produces
the vacuum responsible for the movement of gasoline into the passing
air.
VENTURI PRINCIPLE – The physical law which states that air moved
through a constriction increases in speed and decreases in pressure at
the point of constriction.
WEDGE COMBUSTION CHAMBER – A combustion chamber
resembling in shape, a wedge.
CHAPTER
22
COMPRESSION IGNITION
ENGINES
ACCUMULATOR – A device used for storing liquid under pressure

(sometime used to smooth fluid flow).
ADVANCE (injection timing) – To set the timing of the injection pump or
injectors for an earlier injection.
AFTER BURNING – The burning of fuel that is left in the combustion
space when the fuel injection stops.
AFTER COOLER – A device used on turbocharged engines to cool the air
which has undergone compression, before its entry into the engine
cylinder.
AIR CELL – A small auxiliary combustion chamber used in certain types of
compression ignition engines, for promoting turbulence and improving
combustion.
AIR FUEL RATIO – At full load operation, the air fuel ratio is at least 35 to
50 per cent greater than the stoichiometric value. Air fuel ratio in a
normal diesel engine varies from around 100 : 1 at idle speed to about
30 : 1 at full load.
AIR INJECTION SYSTEM – The system which injects the required quantity
of fuel into the combustion space with the aid of compressed air.
AIRLESS INJECTION – Injection of liquid fuel into the cylinder of an oil
engine by a high pressure fuel pump, so dispensing with the compressed
air necessary in the early diesel engines. Also called SOLID INJECTION
or MECHANICAL INJECTION.
AIR STARTING VALVE – A valve which admits compressed air to the air
starter for starting purposes.
AIR VENT – Arrangement that helps to remove air from the fuel injection system.
ANTECHAMBER – A small auxiliary combustion chamber, used in some
compression ignition engines, in which partial combustion of fuel
takes place and this is used to force the burning mixture into the
cylinder, so promoting more perfect combustion.
ATOMIZATION – The breaking up of fuel jet into fine particles as it is
sprayed into the combustion chamber.
ATOMIZER – A device which disperses liquid fuel into fine particles
(pulverized spray).
BIFUEL ENGINE – has two injectors to inject two fuels. In this a small
amount of a suitable auxiliary fuel is injected into the cylinder either
during the intake stroke or early in the compression stroke. Slightly
latter in the stroke, the primary fuel is injected.
BLUE SMOKE – The smoke that results from the burning of lubricating
oil that reaches the combustion chamber.
BOSCH METERING SYSTEM – A fuel metering system in a diesel engine,
with a helical groove in the plunger which covers and uncovers ports in
the pump barrel and thereby varies the effective stroke of the fuel pump.
CAVITATION – The formation of cavities in the fluid due to excessive
speed of the activator resulting in loss of efficiency in the pump.
CHEMICAL DELAY PERIOD – The time that elapses between the begining
of chemical reaction and the begining of ignition.
CLOSED TYPE NOZZLE – A hydraulically operated, spring loaded needle
valve, which opens inward under the pressure acting on the differential
area of the needle valve (which is a cylinder lapped in with the body
and seated by a spring when the fuel pressure is reduced sufficiently).
COLD SMOKE – The smoke that is made up of droplets of unburned or
partly burned fuel or due to water vapour. Also called WHITE SMOKE.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER – The space wherein combustion of fuel
with air takes place, more or less equal to the clearance volume.
COMBUSTION SWIRL – Air motion created by the ejection of the
combustion products from the precombustion chamber into the
clearance space above the piston.
COMMON RAIL SYSTEM – The fuel injection system which consists of
a high pressure pump which distributes the fuel to a common rail or
header to which injectors are connected.
Compression Ignition Engines 281
COMPRESSIBILITY – The property of a substance by virtue of which its

density increases with increase in pressure.
COMPRESSION IGNITION – Ignition of fuel due to the heat of
compression.
COMPRESSION SWIRL – Rotary motion given to air, as the air is forced,
during compression stroke, from the cylinder into the spherical or
cylindrical combustion chamber through the throat which is located
tangential to the combustion chamber.
CONSTANT PRESSURE COMBUSTION – Combustion which occurs
without a change in pressure. In an engine, this is obtained by a slower
rate of burning than with constant volume combustion.
CONTROLLED COMBUSTION – During uncontrolled combustion,
high temperature and pressure prevail within the combustion chamber.
After this combustion, fuel that is injected burns without any delay. By
controlling the rate of injection, complete control is possible over the
rate of burning.
CONTROL RACK – A toothed rack that runs along the upper end of the
fuel pump and engages pinions (gear teeth) on each pump plunger to
control the amount of fuel injected and thereby determines engine
power output.
CRITICAL COMPRESSION RATIO – Lowest compression ratio at which
any particular fuel will ignite by compression under prescribed test
procedure. The lower the critical compression ratio the better ignition
qualities the fuel has.
DEGREE OF ATOMIZATION – is indicated by the smallness of the size
of the particles in the spray and also by the smallness of the variation
in the size of the particles.
DELAY PERIOD – Time interval between the start of injection and begining
of combustion as indicated by a rise in the pressure crank angle curve,
from the curve which represents compression and expansion of air
while motoring. Also called IGNITION DELAY.
DELIVERY VALVE – A spring loaded valve mounted at the top of the fuel
injection pump barrel. This helps to cut off fuel spray from the nozzle
tip abruptly and without dribble.
DEPTH FILTER – Fuel filter which has dozens of layers of porous material
arranged in sequence and this arrangement compels the contaminant
particles to follow tortuous path into the media.
DIESEL CYCLE – An engine cycle of events in which air alone is compressed
and fuel oil is injected at the end of the compression stroke. The heat
produced by compressing the air ignites the fuel oil, eliminating the
need for spark plugs or a spark ignition system.
DIESEL ENGINE – An engine that operates on the diesel cycle and burns
diesel oil by the heat of compression of air.
DIESEL INDEX – A rating of fuel according to its ignition qualities. The
higher the diesel index number, the better is the ignition quality of fuel.
DIESEL KNOCK – Sudden, steep pressure rise due to instantaneous
uncontrolled combustion of the fuel that has got accumulated during
delay period. The pressure wave hitting piston and cylinder walls
produce knocking sound.
DIRECT INJECTION ENGINES – have a single open combustion
chamber into which the entire quantity of fuel is injected directly.
DISPERSION OF SPRAY – The divergency of the fuel spray which helps
distribution of fuel droplets in air as uniform as possible.
DRIBBLING – Unatomized fuel running from the fuel nozzle.
DUAL FUEL ENGINE – An engine that uses an air gas mixture which is
being ignited by a small quantity of fuel oil injected at the end of the
compression process.
DURATION OF FUEL INJECTION – The crank angle during which
fuel is injected into the engine cylinder. Usually as load increases this
duration has to be increased.
EFFECTIVE STROKE OF PLUNGER – The distance from the point of
closure of the ports by the plunger top to the point of opening of the
spill port by the helical groove on the surface of the plunger. This
decides duration and quantity of fuel delivery by the pump.
ENGINE DERATING – Reducing maximum fuel flow to the engine.
FUEL FILTER – A kind of strainer in which there are openings of definite
size all over the surface, which retains contaminants in the fuel and
permits supply of dust free fuel to the fuel injection system.
FUEL LINE – Thick walled high pressure tubes connecting the delivery end
of the fuel injection pump with an injector nozzle located in each of
the cylinder head.
FUEL METERING – Measuring and delivering the required amount of
fuel for each cycle in accordance with the engine load and delivering the
same amount of fuel to each cylinder for each power stroke of the
engine.
FUEL PUMP DELIVERY VALVE – assembly relieves the high pressure pipe
and maintains a residual pressure in the high pressure pipe. It also reduces
the work per cycle in pressurizing the fuel in the system.
FUEL TRANSFER PUMP – A mechanical device used to transfer fuel from
the low level fuel tank to the injection pump.
GLOW PLUG – is an electrical heater, which is switched on for quick starting
in cold weather. Its heating element protrudes directly into the
combustion chamber in DI engines.
GOVERNOR – Mechanism connected to the control rack of the fuel injection
pump and thus acts as an intermediate mechanism between the control
rack and accelerator pedal.
HOT SMOKE – The smoke that consists of unburned carbon particles (0.5
to 1.0 micron in diameter) and other solid combustion products. This
may be light gray to black smoke.
IGNITION LAG – The time interval between the start of injection and
start of ignition. Also called DELAY PERIOD.
INDIRECT INJECTION ENGINES – have the combustion space divided
into two parts connected by a nozzle or one or more number of orifices.
The fuel is injected into the auxiliary chamber. The main chamber is
situated in the piston top.
INJECTION LAG – Time interval between the closure of the fuel pump
ports by the plunger and the begining of fuel injection by the injector.
INJECTION PUMP – A high variable pressure pump delivering fuel into
the combustion chamber.
INJECTION SYSTEM – The components necessary for delivering fuel to
the combustion chamber in correct quantity, at the correct time and
in a condition satisfactory for efficient combustion.
INJECTION TIMING – Crank angle with respect to TDC at which fuel

injection starts, during the compression stroke.
INJECTOR – A device for injecting fuel oil into the combustion chamber
of an engine against the pressure of air within the chamber. Also called
INJECTION NOZZLE.
MASKED VALVE – An inlet valve which has a mask i.e., a projection, at the
rear of the valve head over a part of the periphery so as to admit air in
the desired direction.
MAXIMUM SPEED GOVERNOR – limits the maximum speed of
operation of a diesel engine.
MECHANICAL INJECTION – Mechanical force pressurizing the metered
fuel and causing injection.
METERING FUEL PUMP – A fuel pump delivering a controlled amount
of fuel per cycle.
MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM SPEED GOVERNORS – are used
predominantly in motor vehicles. The idle and maximum speeds are
governed, but not the range in between where the quantity of fuel
injected is controlled by the accelerator pedal.
MIXED CYCLE – An engine in which fuel burns partly at constant volume
and partly at constant pressure. Sometimes applied to the actual
combustion cycle in most high speed diesel engines.
NOZZLE – The component containing the fuel valve and having one or
more orifices through which fuel is injected.
OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBER – A type of diesel combustion chamber
in which all the air meant for combustion is confined in one space and
combustion of entire fuel takes place within this space. Also called
DIRECT INJECTION CHAMBER or QUIESCENT CHAMBER.
OPEN TYPE NOZZLE – A simple spray nozzle open to the cylinder but
with a check valve which prevents the high pressure gases in the engine
cylinder from passing to the pump.
OPTIMUM INJECTION ADVANCE – Fuel injection timing before TDC
which will result in minimum ignition delay.
ORDERLY TURBULENCE – Air motion which is controlled as to direction
and velocity.
PENETRATION – The distance through which fuel particles are carried by

the kinetic energy imparted to them when they leave the fuel nozzle.
PHYSICAL DELAY PERIOD – The time that elapses between the begining
of fuel injection and the begining of preflame reactions.
PILOT INJECTION – is the early injection of a small quantity of fuel to
initiate combustion of the injected main fuel, in a diesel engine.
PINTLE TYPE NOZZLE – A closed type fuel nozzle having a projection
on the end of the fuel valve which extends into the orifice when the
valve is closed.
PRECOMBUSTION CHAMBER – Part of the combustion space located
in the cylinder head, into which fuel is injected, and combustion starts
here and spreads into the main chamber via the interconnecting orifices.
QUALITY GOVERNING – Power developed is governed by varying the
quantity of fuel injected while the quantity of air sucked in is almost
the same. The air fuel ratio in the combustion chamber is different at
different loads.
RATE OF FUEL INJECTION – Amount of fuel that is injected into the
combustion chamber in unit time or in one degree of crank travel.
REENTRANT COMBUSTION CHAMBER – is an open combustion
chamber which has a smaller diameter (opening) at the entry than at
the middle.
RESIDUAL PRESSURE – The pressure at which the fuel is retained in the
fuel line when the injector needle valve and the pump delivery valve are
in the closed position.
SAC VOLUME – is the dead volume between the nozzle seat and the end of
the spray holes, in a multi hole injector.
SEMI DIESEL – A diesel which utilizes injection of fuel, but also uses electric
spark ignition.
SMOKE – is nothing but the carbon particles suspended in the exhaust gases.
It may be blue smoke, black smoke and white smoke.
SODIUM COOLED VALVE – A valve designed to allow the stem and head to
be made hollow and partially filled with metallic sodium for better cooling.
SOLID INJECTION SYSTEM – The system which injects only the metered
quantity of fuel by means of a pumping device. Also called AIRLESS
INJECTION SYSTEM.
SQUISH – Radial inward flow of air from the annular space above the piston;
into the combustion chamber cavity during the compression stroke of
the piston.
SQUISH AREA – The area confined to the cylinder head and flat surface of
the piston when on compression stroke, which causes squish.
SQUISH HEIGHT – refers to the clearance between the piston top and
cylinder head, at TDC. This is reduced to a minimum consistent with
manufacturing capabilities and operational aspects.
SUCTION SWIRL – Rotary motion imparted to the air during suction by
admitting air into the engine cylinder in a tangential direction.
SUPER CHARGING – Process of admitting into the engine cylinder, a
charge larger in quantity (i.e., weight) than what the cylinder would
contain due to regular suction stroke i.e., by natural aspiration.
SURFACE FILTER – Fuel filter similar to a sieve, consists of a number of
discrete holes and pores, through a single layer of material.
SWIRL – Rotation of mass of air as it enters the engine cylinder. This is one
form of turbulence.
SWIRL COMBUSTION CHAMBER – Part of the combustion space,
spherical or cylindrical in shape, located in the cylinder head, in which
vigorous swirl is created and into which fuel is injected and combustion
starts and spreads into the space above the piston.
SWIRL RATIO – is the ratio of (air) swirl speed in the combustion chamber
to engine speed.
TIMING MARK (injection) – The mark made on the vibration damper or
flywheel, used to check injection timing.
TURBULENCE – Violent swirling motion. Fuel injection produces some
turbulence. Additional turbulence is provided by the design features
of the combustion chamber.
TURBULENCE CHAMBER – A combustion chamber connected to the
cylinder through a throat. Fuel is injected across the chamber and
turbulence is produced in the chamber by the air entering during
compression.
TWO STAGE COMBUSTION – Combustion occurring in two distinct
steps such as in a precombustion chamber.
UNCONTROLLED COMBUSTION – is the instantaneous combustion

of the fuel that got accumulated in the combustion chamber, at the
end of the delay period.
UNIT INJECTOR – A combined fuel injection pump and fuel nozzle.
VALVE CLOSING PRESSURE – is the fuel pressure at which the fuel injector
needle valve snaps back on its seat. For the differential valve stem, this
is less than the nozzle opening pressure.
VALVE CLOSING ORIFICE NOZZLE – In this nozzle, the needle valve
sits directly on the top of the orifice. This prevents any fuel in the sac
volume escaping into the cylinder after the valve is closed.
VALVE OPENING PRESSURE – is the fuel pressure at which the needle
valve of the injector lifts off its seat.
VARIABLE INJECTION TIMING – Altering the injection timing as the
engine speed changes (advancing timing as speed increases), by a set
of flywheel weights mounted on the injector pump camshaft, to obtain
better performance.
VARIABLE SPEED GOVERNOR – Governs both the idle and maximum
speeds as well as the range in between.
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CHAPTER
23
TWO WHEELERS
ANTI DIVE SYSTEM – A system installed with some brakes that uses
front fork damping and the front brake assembly to prevent excessive
fork compression and to improve handling when brakes are applied.
AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION – A transmission not using a manually
operated clutch.
AXLE – A shaft used to support a part or parts across the frame or forks. e.g.,
front and rear axles.
BACK BONE FRAME – Frame which uses the engine as a structural member
for load carrying.
BEAD – The portion of the tyre which holds it onto the rim.
BEZEL – Piece of metal surrounding head lights, gauges or similar
components, sometimes used to hold the glass face of a gauge in the
dashboard.
BOOSTER PORT – In a two stroke engine, the port that allows an extra
amount of air fuel mixture from the intake port into the combustion
chamber.
BRAKE ACTUATOR CAM – Small cam that pivots in brake backing plate
and forces brake shoes into brake drum.
BRAKE CALIPER – Part of a disc brake which holds friction pads and
encloses disc. As the brake is applied, hydraulic fluid forces a piston in
caliper towards disc, causing disc to be pinched between brake pads.
BRAKE DISC – A round, flat disc made of steel or cast iron. It is mounted
on outside of wheel hub.
BRAKE DRUM – A circular ring of cast iron that is part of wheel hub. It
provides a place for brake lining to be applied.
BRAKE FADE – Loss of braking power, usually caused by excessive heat
after repeated brake applications.
BRAKE LINE – Special hydraulic tubing made of steel, plastic or reinforced
rubber. Hydraulic lines must be capable of withstanding extreme
pressure without deforming.
BRAKE LINING – A special high friction material made of asbestos and
other materials bonded to brake shoes and brake pad plates. Brake
lining produces friction and heat when it is forced against brake drum.
BRAKE PAD – The friction pad on a disc brake system.
BRAKE SHOE – The friction lining on a drum brake system.
BRAKE WEAR INDICATOR – Index grooves, tabs, or reference lines to
indicate amount of brake lining or pad wear.
BRIDGED PORTS – A vertical port division in a two stroke cycle engine
cylinder which allows use of a large port without the danger of ring or
piston catching.
CAST ALLOY WHEEL – A one piece wheel made of cast aluminium or
magnesium alloy. This design is more rigid than the wire spoked wheel.
CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCH – Clutch engaged by centrifugal force as engine
speeds up.
CHAIN DRIVE – Use of a chain and sprockets to connect gear box output
shaft to rear wheel.
CHAIN STRETCH – Wear of pins and bushings of a roller or hyvo chain,
causing the chain to lengthen.
CHAMFER – To bevel an edge of an object or to chamfer edges of port
openings in a two stroke cycle cylinder to prevent piston ring breakage.
CLOSE RATIO GEAR BOX – A gearbox with gear ratios spaced close
together.
CLUTCH – Device used to connect and disconnect engine power to gearbox
input shaft.
CLUTCH BASKET – Part of clutch assembly containing drive plates.
Primary drive gear engages teeth on the outside of the clutch basket.
Two Wheelers 291
CLUTCH HUB – Part of the clutch that engages with plain driven clutch
plates. Clutch hub is mounted on the gearbox input shaft.
CLUTCH PRESSURE PLATE – Part of a clutch assembly providing pressure
against the clutch disc or clutch plates.
CLUTCH RELEASE MECHANISM – Mechanism that moves the clutch
pressure plate away from the clutch pack allowing the clutch to slip.
CONICAL HUB – A wheel hub (wire wheel) with spoke holes on the brake
side of a wheel at a greater distance from the center of the hub than
spoke holes on the opposite side of the hub.
CONVENTIONAL REAR SUSPENSION – Suspension used on dual purpose
and road bikes which provides less than 152 mm of suspension travel.
COUNTERSHAFT SPROCKET – Output sprocket from gearbox.
Mounted on output shaft in indirect drive gearbox and on high gear
pinion in direct drive gear box.
CRADLE FRAME – Frame built of tubing which supports and surrounds
the engine.
CRANKSHAFT AXLES – Extension at each end of the crankshaft to provide
a mounting place for the main bearings, primary drive gear or sprocket,
and alternator rotor or magneto flywheel.
CURB WEIGHT – The weight of a vehicle without passengers or payload,
but including all fluids (oil, gas, coolant etc.) and other equipment
specified as standard.
DAMPER – Device which uses oil metered through orifices to control abrupt
suspension movement during expansion and compression.
DAMPER ROD – Tube secured to the bottom of each fork slider to hold
the slider onto the fork leg. Damper rod controls movement of front
suspension by metering hydraulic fluid through orifices in the rod.
DIAPHRAGM SPRING – A slightly cone shaped metal disc which acts as
a clutch pressure plate spring when flattened.
DIRECT DRIVE GEARBOX – Power is transmitted from clutch to input
shaft (main shaft), to layshaft, to high gear pinion, which has output
sprocket mounted on it.
DISC BRAKE – A brake consisting of a flat circular disc attached to the
wheel. A hydraulic or mechanical caliper applies pressure to two brake
pads and press them on the disc to slow or stop disc rotation.
DOUBLE PISTON CALIPER – A hydraulic brake caliper with two pistons

and provisions for applying hydraulic pressure equally to both pistons.
The caliper body is fixed solidly.
DOUBLE ROW CHAIN – A chain having two rows of rollers. Duplex
(double row) chains are used for primary drives.
DRIVE PLATE – A clutch plate which is indexed into the clutch basket (outer
hub) by tabs. Drive plate has friction material bonded to its surface. When
clutch is engaged, drive plate transfers power to driven plate.
DRIVEN PLATE – A clutch plate which is indexed onto the clutch inner
hub by tabs or splines around its inside diameter. Driven plate is usually
a plain plate (no friction material) and drives gearbox input shaft
through clutch inner hub.
DRIVE TRAIN – The drive system that transfers the power produced by
the engine to the rear wheel, includes primary drive, clutch,
transmission and fluid drive systems.
DRUM BRAKE – A brake consisting of two brake shoes mounted on a backing
plate. One or two cams cause the shoes to expand against inside of the
brake drum. Brake drum is part of hub or is bolted to hub.
DRY CLUTCH – A clutch assembly that does not run in an oil bath.
ELLIPTICAL PORT SHAPE – Rounded port shape designed to prevent
ring catching in large ports of two stroke cycle engines.
ENDLESS CHAIN – A roller chain without a master link for connection of
ends. All pin links are permanently riveted.
EXHAUST PORT – In a two stroke engine, the passage way located in the
upper portion of the cylinder opposite from the intake port, that channels
spent combustion gases to the exhaust system.
EXHAUST PORT TIMING – Amount of time, two stroke cycle exhaust
port is open, expressed in crankshaft degrees or piston travel.
EXTENSION – The return or stretching outward of suspension components
(after compression) caused by spring pressure.
FINAL DRIVE RATIO – The number of times the transmission output
shaft turns to produce one revolution of the rear wheel.
FINAL DRIVE SYSTEM – The part of the drive train that uses a chain, belt or
shaft to direct the power flow from the transmission to the rear wheel.
Two Wheelers 293
FORK SLIDERS – Lower portion of fork which slides over the fork leg.
FORK TUBES – Long sturdy tubes attached to triple clamps and fitted
inside fork sliders.
FRAME – The skeleton of the two wheeler made of tubes, steel plates or
pressed steel that supports the rider and engine and provides attachment
points for the frame components.
FRONT FORK – The spring and damping device that holds the front wheel
in place.
FUEL PET COCK – An on-off valve located at the bottom of fuel tank. It
may provide for reserve fuel supply and may have a filter screen and
sediment bowl. Fuel line to carburettor is attached to fuel petcock.
GAS CHARGED SHOCK ABSORBER – A shock absorber using a
pressurized gas such as nitrogen to help prevent changes in damping
as shock absorber heats up.
GUSSET – A reinforcing plate or boxed section used to prevent flexing of
frame or swing arm.
HUB – The center part of a wheel.
HYDRAULIC DAMPING – A conversion of oil resistance to heat energy
to create a force that opposes input motion.
HYDRAULIC DISC BRAKE – A brake system that exerts pressure through
brake fluid to press brake pads against a disc to slow or stop the vehicle.
HYDRO-PLANING – A phenomenon of driving when water builds up
under the tyre tread, causing it to lose contact with the road. Slowing
down will usually restore normal tyre contact with the road.
HY-VO-CHAIN – A very strong chain made of toothed plates positioned
side by side and held together by pins. Advantage of this chain is great
strength and quiet operation.
INDIRECT DRIVE GEARBOX – A gearbox where power is transferred
from clutch to input shaft and from that to output shaft. Output
shaft has a sprocket mounted on one end.
INPUT SHAFT – Shaft of a gearbox which carries power into gearbox.
Clutch assembly is mounted on gearbox input shaft.
INTAKE PORT – In a two stroke engine, the passage way that allows the air
fuel oil mixture to travel from the carburettor into the crankcase,
located on the lower half of the cylinder opposite from the exhaust
port on all but rotary valve engine.
INTAKE TIMING – Amount of time, two stroke cycle engine intake port
is open, expressed in crankshaft degrees or piston position.
INTERNAL COOLING – Engine cooling provided by oil, fuel mixtures,
and valve overlap.
LACING – The positioning of spokes in the hub and rim of a wheel.
LATERAL RUNOUT – Side to side movement (wobble) of a wheel rim.
LAY SHAFT – Second shaft in a direct drive gearbox. It transmits power
from input shaft to high gear pinion.
LOAD RANGE – Indicates the number of plies at which a tyre is rated, load
range B equals 4 ply rating, C equals 6 ply rating, and D equals 8 ply
rating.
LONG TRAVEL SUSPENSION – Suspension used on current competition
dirt bikes to provide more than 150 mm of travel.
MASTER LINK – A pin link which has one removable side plate located by
a clip. This allows a convenient way of separating the chain.
MECHANICAL BRAKE – A brake system which uses a mechanical
advantage by way of levers and cables or rods to apply brakes. A brake
system not using hydraulic fluids or hydraulics.
MILD PORT TIMING – Two stroke cycle engine ports open for a relatively
short time, providing for a broad power band.
MOTOR CYCLE – A two wheeled vehicle powered by an internal
combustion engine.
MULTI PLATE CLUTCH – A clutch assembly using more than one driving
plate and more than one driven plate.
MULTIPLE PORTS – Use of many small transfer ports rather than two
large ports in the two stroke cycle engine cylinder.
NON-PRIMARY KICKSTART – A kickstart system which uses gearbox
input shaft and clutch hub to connect kickstart lever to crank shaft.
For starting , gearbox must be in neutral and clutch engaged.
NON-UNIT CONSTRUCTION – Engine design with separate engine
crankcase and gearbox case.
Two Wheelers 295
O-RING CHAIN – Roller chain which uses ‘O’ rings to permanently seal
lubricant into area between pins and bushings.
OUTPUT SHAFT – Gearbox shaft that transmits power to final drive at a
selected ratio.
OVERALL GEAR RATIO – Ratio of crankshaft revolutions to rear wheel
revolutions.
PISTON (brake system) – A movable part of a master cylinder or wheel
cylinder. Master cylinder piston produces pressure and caliper (wheel
cylinder) piston applies that pressure to brake disc, slowing or stopping
the wheel rotation.
PISTON PORT SYSTEM – The two stroke intake system that uses the
piston to open and close the intake and exhaust ports.
PLY RATING – A rating given to a tyre which indicates strength (but not
necessarily actual number of plies).
PORTS – The passage ways cut into a two stroke engine cylinder, that channel
gases into and out of the engine. Also called PORT WINDOWS.
POWER TO WEIGHT RATIO – Ratio of horse power to weight of a
vehicle.
POWER TRANSMISSION – A system of gears, chains, sprockets and shafts
that transfer power from the crankshaft to rear wheel in varying ratios.
PREMIX – Two stroke cycle engine lubrication provided by oil mixed with
fuel in fuel tank.
PRIMARY CHAIN DRIVE – A primary drive design that uses a chain and
sprockets to transmit engine power from crankshaft to clutch.
PRIMARY DRIVE SYSTEM – A system of gears, chains or belts that transmits
power from the crankshaft to the transmission, includes the clutch.
PRIMARY KICKSTART – A kickstart system which connects kickstart lever
to crankshaft through clutch basket. Gearbox can be in gear for starting
if clutch is disengaged.
PRIMARY REDUCTION – A gear reduction usually about three to one,
accomplished by primary drive.
RADICAL PORT TIMING – Ports open for a relatively long period of
time.
REED CAGE – An aluminium frame providing a mounting place for reed

petals in a two stroke cycle engine.
REED PETALS – Movable part of a reed valve assembly.
REED VALVE SYSTEM – A two stroke intake system that uses thin flapper
valves that are opened by vacuum and closed by pressure.
REAR SUSPENSION – The suspension system that consists of the swing
arm, rear shock absorbers, springs and linkage.
RIM BAND – A strip of soft rubber that protects the inner tube from the
spoke nipples.
RIM OFFSET – The deliberate lacing of spokes off center to the hub to
achieve rear chain or front brake clearance.
ROLLER CHAIN – A chain made up of pins, side plates, bushings and
rollers. Roller links are connected by pin links to achieve desired length.
The ends are usually connected by a pin link which has a removable
side plate, called master link.
ROTARY VALVE – A two stroke engine intake system that uses a partially cut
away rotating disc to open and close the intake passage into the crankcase.
SCAVENGING – Inertia caused movement of gases through cylinder and
exhaust system of a two stroke cycle or four stroke cycle engine by the
incoming fresh charge.
SEALED BEAM – A modern automotive headlight. The lens, reflector and
filament form a single unit.
SEDIMENT BOWL – A cup located at the bottom of the fuel petcock,
designed to prevent flow of dirt and water into the fuel line.
SHAFT DRIVE – Use of a drive shaft, universal joints, and gears to connect
gearbox output shaft to rear wheel.
SHOCK ABSORBER – Rear suspension unit made up of a coil spring and
a hydraulic damper. It prevents spring oscillations.
SINGLE ROW CHAIN – A conventional roller chain with one row of rollers.
SOLID ROLLER CHAIN – Roller chain using a one piece roller and bushing
assembly.
SPINDLE (steering fork) – A shaft which is secured to upper and lower
tripple clamps. It pivots on bearings mounted in the steering head.
Two Wheelers 297
SPOKE – A metal part, often a wire, that runs between the rim and hub of
a spoked wheel to transfer force to the hub.
SPOKE CROSSING PATTERN – Number of spokes crossed on the same
side of the hub by anyone spoke.
SPOKED WHEEL – A wheel consisting of a rim, spokes, nipples and hub.
Spokes are laced between hub and rim and are attached to the rim by
nipples.
SPOKE TORQUE WRENCH – A small torque wrench used to adjust
accurately the spoke tension.
SPONGY LEVER or PEDAL – A soft or spongy feeling when the brake
lever or pedal is depressed. It is usually due to air in the brake lines.
SPROCKET – A circular plate with teeth machined around outside to engage
links of a chain.
SPRUNG WEIGHT – The weight of the two wheeler components that are
supported on springs, includes the fork tube, engine, tripple clamp and frame.
STAMPED FRAME – A frame stamped from pieces of sheet metal which
are welded together to provide support for engine and suspension.
STAMPED WHEEL – A wheel assembly using stamped sheet metal spokes
in place of small wire type spokes. A stamped wheel resembles a cast
alloy wheel in appearance.
STEERING DAMPER – A device which uses friction or a hydraulic damper
to reduce steering oscillation.
STEERING HEAD – The tube at the top and front of the frame that supports
the steering stem and is welded at a specific angle to provide the proper
fork angle.
STEERING OFFSET – Distance between steering axis and axis on which
the axle pivots. Steering offset is accomplished by offsetting axle or
tripple clamps.
STEERING RAKE – Angle of steering axis from vertical, given in degrees.
STEERING STEM – A shaft positioned through the steering head that
enables the front end to turn.
SUSPENSION SYSTEM – A system that consists of front forks, shock
absorbers, springs and the swing arm, used to support the two wheeler
on its axles and wheels.
SWING ARM – The assembly that links the rear wheel to the frame and
allows the rear wheel to move up and down, and prevents the wheel
from moving laterally and flexing at the pivot point.
SWING ARM PIVOT – Forward part of swing arm, where it is attached to
the frame and pivots on bushings or bearings.
SYMMETRICAL HUB – A wheel hub (wire wheel) which has spoke
holes on each side of the hub at the same distance from hub center.
TELESCOPIC FORK – Front suspension unit made up of two fork tubes and
two sliders that telescope up and down the tubes against spring pressure.
THROTTLE CABLE – A cable consisting of an outer housing and an inner
cable which connects carburettor to throttle twist grip.
THROTTLE STOP SCREW – An idle speed adjustment screw used in
slide type carburettor. This screw contacts base of throttle slide. As
the screw is turned in, throttle slide is raised, increasing idle speed.
THROTTLE TWIST GRIP – A device mounted on the end of handle bar
which locates one end of outer throttle cable and pulls inner cable as
the twist grip is rotated.
TRAIL – The distance between the center of the tyre contact patch and the
imaginary point where the steering head axis strikes the ground.
TRANSFER PORT – Opening in the cylinder wall of a two stroke engine
which connects cylinder to crankcase.
TRANSFER PORT TIMING – Amount of time transfer port is open,
expressed in crankshaft degrees or piston position.
TRANSMISSION – The part of the drive train that uses a series of gears and
shafts to increase the torque and provides gear shifting to allow increases
in speed without overworking the engine.
TREAD WEAR PATTERN – The pattern of wear on the tyre which can be
read to diagnose problems in the front suspension.
TRIPPLE CLAMPS – An assembly that consists of the steering stem and
two brackets that position the fork tubes.
TRIPPLE ROW CHAIN – A chain having three rows of rollers. Tripple
row chains are used for primary drives.
TWO STROKE CYCLE – A cycle of overlapping events (intake, transfer,
compression, power and, exhaust) which all occur during one
revolution of crankshaft.
Two Wheelers 299
TYRE PRESSURE GAUGE – A pressure gauge used to check tyre air pressure.
UNIFIED BRAKE SYSTEM – A system that automatically coordinates
the front and rear brake systems when the rider applies pressure to the
brake pedal.
UNIT CONSTRUCTION – Engine design which has one crankcase to
house gearbox, clutch, primary drive and engine.
UNIVERSAL JOINT – A flexible joint which allows changes in angle of
drive shaft.
UNSPRUNG WEIGHT – The weight of the two wheeler components that
are not supported on springs, includes the wheel assembly, fork sliders,
rear shocks, a portion of the swing arm, the chain or shaft drive, one
half of the spring and on some models, the front fender.
WET CLUTCH – A multiple plate clutch which runs in an oil bath (primary
drive).
WHEEL BALANCING – An equal distribution of weight achieved by
determining where the wheel is heavier and then placing weights
opposite the heavy portion.
WHEEL BASE – Distance between the center of front wheel and the center
of rear wheel.
WHEEL WEIGHT – Small weights attached to the wheel to balance the
wheel and the tyre assembly.
WIDE RATIO GEARBOX – A gearbox having wide ratio spacing between
gears. A wide ratio gear box is used in off road and trials motor cycles.
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CHAPTER
24
AUTOMOTIVE VEHICLES
ACCELERATOR – A pedal connected to the carburettor throttle valve of a

motor vehicle, or to the fuel injection control where oil engines are
used.
ACKERMAN PRINCIPLE – Steering geometry in which the outer ends of
the steering arms are bend slightly inward so that when the vehicle is
making a turn, inside wheel will turn more sharply than the outer wheel.
This principle produces toe out on turns.
ACKERMAN STEERING – Arrangement whereby a line extended from the
track arms, when the wheels are set straight ahead, should meet on the
chassis centre line at 2/3 of the wheel base from the front, allowing inner
stub axle to move through a greater angle than the outer.
AERODYNAMIC DRAG – is the air resistance to the motion of the vehicle.
This consists of profile drag, induced drag, skin friction drag,
interference drag, and cooling and ventilation drag.
AERODYNAMIC LIFT – is the vertical component of the resultant force
caused by the pressure distribution on the vehicle body.
AIR BLEEDER – A device used to remove air from a hydraulic system.
Types include a needle valve, capillary tubing to the reservoir, and a
bleed plug.
AIR BRAKE – A braking system which uses compressed air to supply the
effort required to apply brakes.
AIRFOIL – Device, similar to a stubby wing.
AIR RESISTANCE – The motion of an automobile is associated with the
displacement of air particles, which requires some power of the engine.
Air resistance depends on the size and shape of the vehicle body, speed
of the vehicle and wind velocity.
AIR SPRING – Container and plunger are separated by air under pressure.
When container and plunger attempt to squeeze together, air
compresses and produces a spring effect. Air spring has been used in
some suspension systems.
ALL WEATHER TYRE – A tyre designed to provide good traction on dry,
wet and dirt and snow covered roadways.
ANTI DAZZLE MIRROR – One having a photoeltric control circuit which
changes it from a fully reflecting condition to partial reflection from a
glass air interface when actuated by the head lamp beam of a following
vehicle.
ANTILOCK BRAKE SYSTEM (ABS) – If the brakes are applied so hard that
the wheels tend to stop turning and thus a skid starts to develop, the
antilock brake system comes into operation and partly releases the brakes.
This makes the wheels continue to rotate. However, intermittent braking
continues. But it is held below the point where the skid would start.
ANTIMIST PANEL – A panel fitted to the rear window enclosing a volume
of still air between itself and the outer glass.
ANTIROLL BAR – Torsion bar mounted transversely in the chassis in such
a way so as to counteract the effect of opposite spring deflections.
ARCH – The curve of a leaf spring. If the centre is lower than the ends, it is
called positive arch, if the centre is higher than the ends, it is called
negative arch.
ARCING (brakes) – Grinding new brake linings to the same diameter (arc)
as that of the brake drum surface.
ASPECT RATIO – The ratio of the width to the length. On tyres, it is the
fully inflated height divided by the cross section.
AUTOMOBILE – is a self propelled vehicle. The power required to propel the
vehicle is supplied by the engine (also called prime mover). Scooters, motor
cycles, cars, buses, trucks etc., are different types of automotive vehicles.
AUTOMATIC LEVEL CONTROL – A suspension system which
compensates for variations in load in the rear of the car, positioning
the rear at a predesigned level regardless of load.
Automotive Vehicles 303
AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION – A power transmission system for road

vehicles, in which the approximately optimum engine speed is
maintained through mechanical or hydraulic speed changing devices
which are automatically selected and operated by reference to the road
speed of the vehicle.
AXLE – A cross bar supporting a vehicle on which one or more wheels turn.
AXLE (full floating) – Axle used to drive rear wheels. It does not hold the
wheels on nor support them.
AXLE (semiquarter or one quarter floating) – Axle used to drive wheels,
hold them on and support them.
AXLE THREE QUARTER FLOATING – Axle used to drive rear wheels as
well as hold them on and support them.
AXLE FLANGE – A flat surface on the outboard end of the axle shaft to
allow wheel attachment.
AXLE GEAR – A gear in the differential carrier that drives the driving wheels.
AXLE RATIO – Relationship or ratio between the number of times the propeller
shaft or drive shaft must revolve to turn the axle shafts one turn.
AXLE SHAFT – The shaft used to transmit power from the differential to
the wheels.
BACK LOCKING – The steering gear is so constructed that it is easy to
turn the vehicle by steering wheel, but it is difficult to turn the steering
wheel by turning the front wheels. This back locking prevents the
bumps and shocks experienced by the wheel on the road surface from
being transmitted to the steering wheel.
BACKING PLATE – A mounting plate that holds the brake shoes, cam
lever, pivot pins and springs inside the brake drum.
BALL JOINT – Flexible joint utilizing ball and socket type of
construction, used in steering linkage set ups, steering knuckle pivot
supports etc.
BALL JOINT ROCKER ARMS – Rocker arms that instead of being mounted
on shaft, are mounted upon ball shaped devices on end of stud.
BALL JOINT STEERING KNUCKLE – Steering knuckle that pivots on
ball joints instead on king pin.
BALL JOINT SUSPENSION – A type of front suspension, which does

not use a steering knuckle. Instead, the wheel spindle is attached directly
to the upper and lower suspension arms through ball joints. Allows
movement up and down as well as rotation.
BALL STUD – Stud with a ball on end, commonly used in steering linkage
to connect pitman arm to linkage, or to connect tie rods.
BALL AND TRUNNION JOINT – A type of universal joint which
combines the universal joint and slip joint in one assembly.
BEAD (tyre) – Steel wire reinforced portion around a tyre opening that
engages the wheel rim.
BELL HOUSING (clutch housing) – Metal (cast iron or aluminium) cover
that surrounds flywheel and clutch, or torque converter assembly.
BELL MOUTH – The taper of a brake drum.
BELTED TYRE – A tyre that is reinforced with a build up of cord under the
tread area.
BENCH BLEEDING – Process of removing air from the master cylinder
pressure area before installing it in the vehicle.
BENDIX TYPE STARTER – A self engaging starter drive gear. Gear
moves into engagement when starter armature shaft starts spinning
and automatically disengages when starter stops and engine speed
increases.
BIAS BELTED TYRE – A tyre in which plies are laid on the bias, criss
crossing each other, with a circumferential belt on top of them. The
rubber tread is vulcanized on top of the belt and plies.
BINDERS – Compounds that hold the friction materials together in brake
linings.
BLEEDING – Removing air, pressure, fluid etc. from a closed system as in
the brake system or air conditioning system.
BLEEDING (brakes) – Removal of air from hydraulic system. Bleeder screws
are loosened at each wheel cylinder (one at a time) and brake fluid is
forced from master cylinder through lines until all air is expelled.
BLEEDING (steering) – A process by which air is removed from a hydraulic
system (power steering) by bleeding off part of the fluid or operating
the system to work without the air.
BODY – The assembly of sheet metal sections together with windows, doors,
seats and other parts, that provides an enclosure for the passengers,
engine and so on.
BODY PANELS – Sheets or panels of steel which are fastened together by
welding to form the vehicle body.
BODY ROLL – The vehicle body leaning sideways as the vehicle turns.
BOGIE – A small truck, of short wheel base running on rails, commonly
used for the conveyance of coal, gold or other ores, concrete etc.
BONDED BRAKE LINING – Brake lining that is attached to the brake
shoe by adhesive.
BONNET – British term for car hood.
BOOSTER – Device incorporated in a car system (such as brake and steering),
to increase pressure output or decrease amount of effort required to
operate or both.
BORG WARNER OVER DRIVE – A method of reducing engine rpm in
relation to road speed. The unit is attached at the rear of the gear box
and operates through epicyclic gears.
BRAKE – An energy conversion device that converts the energy of motion
into heat energy and thereby slows down or stops a moving vehicle.
BRAKE (disc type) – Braking system which uses steel disc with caliper type
lining application. When brakes are applied, section of lining on the
caliper piston on each side of the spinning disc is forced against the
disc thus imparting braking force. This type of brake is very resistance
to brake fade. Also called disc brake system.
BRAKE ANCHOR – Steel stud upon which one end of brake shoes is either
attached to or rests against. Anchor is firmly affixed to backing plate.
BRAKE ANTIROLL DEVICE – Unit installed in brake system to hold
brake line pressure when car is stopped on upgrade, and brake pedal is
released. Antiroll device will keep brakes applied until either clutch is
released or, as in some models, accelerator is depressed.
BRAKE BACKING PLATE – Rigid steel plate upon which brake shoes are
attached. Braking force applied to shoes is absorbed by backing plate.
BRAKE BAND – Band faced with brake lining, that encircles a brake drum.
Used on several parking brake installations.
BRAKE BIAS – The stopping effort of the front wheels compared to that of
the rear wheels.
BRAKE CALIPER – The hydraulic cylinder at the wheel used to apply the
disc brake linings against the rotor.
BRAKE CLEARANCE – is the clearance provided between the lining and
the drum or disc. Wear and tear of the lining increases this clearance and
hence to be adjusted periodically.
BRAKE DRUM – Metal drum mounted to the vehicle wheel which forms
the outer shell of the brake. Brake shoes when moved out or moved
apart press against the rotating drum to slow or stop drum and wheel
rotation.
BRAKE EFFECTIVENESS – is how effectively the brakes perform their
function. This depends on the area of the brake lining, amount of
pressure applied to the brake shoes, radius of the brake drum, vehicle
wheel radius, coefficient of friction of braking surfaces and coefficient
of friction between the tyre and the road surface.
BRAKE FADE – A reduction or fading out of braking effectiveness due to
loss of friction between brake shoes and drum. This is caused by
overheating (heat build up) from excessively long and hard brake
application for instance, when coming down a long hill or mountain.
BRAKE FEEL – The reaction of the brake pedal against the drivers foot, that
tells him how heavily he is applying the brakes.
BRAKE FLUID – A special non -mineral oil fluid used in hydraulic braking
system. Never use anything else in place of regular fluid.
BRAKE FLUSHING – Cleaning brake system by flushing with alcohol or
brake fluid. Done to remove water, dirt or any other contaminant.
Flushing fluid is placed in master cylinder and forced through lines
and wheel cylinders where it exits at cylinder bleed screws.
BRAKE LINE – Special hydraulic tube made of steel, plastic or reinforced
rubber suitably designed to withstand extreme pressure without
deforming.
BRAKE LINING – A special high friction material made of asbestos and
other materials bonded to brake shoes and brake pad plates. Brake
lining produces friction and heat when it is forced against the brake
drum or disc.
BRAKE PULL – A condition in which the vehicle turns each time the brakes
are applied.
BRAKE ROTOR – The brake friction surface that rotates at wheel speed
designed for contact with the brake pads on disc brake assemblies.
BRAKE SELF ADJUSTERS – A cable operated device used to adjust brake
shoes automatically.
BRAKE SHOES (disc brakes) – Flat metal pieces lined with brake lining
which are forced against the rotor face. Also called brake pads.
BRAKE SHOES (drum brakes) – Arc shaped metal pieces lined with heat
resistant fibre. When forced against the brake drum, stops wheel rotation.
BRAKE SHOE HEEL – End of brake shoe adjacent to anchor bolt or pin.
BRAKE SHOE TOE – Free end of brake shoe, not attached to or resting
against an anchor pin.
BRAKING SYSTEM EFFICIENCY – is measured in terms of the rate at
which brake will bring the vehicle to a stationary position from a given
speed. It is expressed as the ratio of the vehicle deceleration rate to the
acceleration due to gravity.
BREAKE (tyre) – Rubber or fabric (or both) strip placed under the tread to
provide additional protection for main tyre carcass.
BULK HEAD – The structural part of the vehicle connecting the front of
the floor assembly to the roof structure.
BUMPER – which is attached to the vehicle frame takes the shock of impact
or collision and transfer the same to the frame. By this means, damage
to engine parts, radiator, lamps etc. is avoided.
BUMP STEER – The steering effect caused by the suspension moving through
its travel.
CALIPER – A housing for the hydraulic components of a disc brake system.
CAMBER – Tilting of the top of wheels from the vertical, when the tilt is
outward, camber is positive.
CAMBER ANGLE – The outward (positive) or inward (negative) angle of
the wheel centre line to absolute vertical.
CARDAN UNIVERSAL JOINT – A universal joint of the ball and socket
type.
CARLIFT – An air, electrical or hydraulically operated piece of shop

equipment which can lift the entire vehicle, or in some cases, one end
of the vehicle.
CARRIER BEARINGS – Bearings upon which differential case is mounted.
CASING OF TYRE – The tyre casing, made of fabric or cord to which
rubber is vulcanized. It is the outer part of the tyre assembly.
CASTER – The tendency of a wheel to follow the direction of the pivot
movement. Tilt of the top of the king pin forward or backward from
the vertical. When tipped forward it is called negative caster. Backward
tilt from the vertical is called positive caster.
CASTER ANGLE – The rearward (positive) or forward (negative) angle of
the steering axis to absolute vertical.
CENTRE STEERING LINKAGE – Steering system utilizing two tie rods
connected to steering arms and to central idler arm. Idler arm is
operated by drag link that connects idler arm to pitman arm.
CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCH – Clutch that utilizes centrifugal force to expand
a friction device on driving shaft until it is locked to a drum on driven
shaft. The clutch comes into action as it spins faster.
CHANNELED – Car body lowered down around frame.
CHASSIS – Generally chassis refers to the unit that consists of frame, engine,
front and rear axles, springs, steering and brake systems, controls, drive
train and fuel tank. It is an assembly of mechanisms that make up the
major operating part of the vehicle. In short, it is assumed to include
everything except the vehicle body and fenders.
CLASSIC or NORMAL CONTROL TRUCK – has the engine located in
front of the driver’s cabin.
CLUTCH – Device used to connect or disconnect flow of power from one
unit to another. In a vehicle, the mechanism in the power train that
connects the engine crankshaft to or disconnects it from the
transmission and thus with the remainder of the power train.
CLUTCH CHATTER – A shaking or shuddering of the vehicle as the clutch
is operated.
CLUTCH DIAPHRAGM SPRING – Round dish shaped piece of flat spring
steel, used to force pressure plate against clutch disc in some clutches.
CLUTCH DISC – Part of the clutch assembly splined to transmission clutch

or input shaft, faced with friction material. When clutch is engaged,
disc is squeezed between flywheel and clutch pressure plate.
CLUTCH DRAG – A problem in which the clutch disc does not come to a
complete stop after the clutch pedal is depressed.
CLUTCH EXPLOSION – Clutches have literally flown apart (exploded)
when subjected to high rotational speed. Scatter shield is used on
competition cars to protect driver and spectators from flying parts in
event clutch explodes.
CLUTCH HOUSING – A metal housing that surrounds the flywheel and
clutch assembly.
CLUTCH LINKAGE – The rods and levers that allow the driver to operate
the clutch.
CLUTCH PEDAL – A pedal in the drivers compartment that operates the
clutch.
CLUTCH PEDAL FREE TRAVEL – Specified distance clutch pedal may
be depressed before throw out bearing actually contacts clutch release
fingers.
CLUTCH PILOT BEARING – A small bronze bushing or ball bearing
positioned in the crankshaft end or centre of flywheel, used to support
outboard end of transmission input shaft.
CLUTCH PRESSURE PLATE – Part of a clutch assembly, that through
spring pressure, squeezes clutch disc against flywheel thereby
transmitting driving force through the assembly. To disengage clutch,
pressure plate is drawn away from the flywheel via linkages.
CLUTCH SEMI CENTRIFUGAL RELEASE FINGERS – Clutch release
fingers that have a weight attached to them, so that at high rpm release
fingers place additional pressure on clutch pressure plate.
CLUTCH SHAFT – The shaft on which the clutch is assembled, with the
gear that drives the countershaft in the transmission on one end. It
has external splines that can be used by a sychronizer drum to lock the
clutch shaft to the main shaft for direct drive.
CLUTCH SLIPPAGE – A condition in which the engine overrevs during
shifting or acceleration.
CLUTCH THROWOUT FORK – In the clutch, a Y shaped member into

which is assembled the throwout bearing.
CLUSTER or COUNTER GEAR – Cluster of gears that are all cut on one
long gear blank. Cluster gears ride in the bottom of transmission. Cluster
provides a connection between transmission input shaft and output
shaft.
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION – An index of the frictional characteristics
of a material.
COEFFICIENT OF ROLLING RESISTANCE – is numerically equal to
the ratio of the force causing uniform rolling of the wheel to the normal
reaction of the road.
COIL SPRING CLUTCH – A clutch using coil springs to hold the pressure
plate against the friction disc.
COLLAPSIBLE STEERING COLUMN – is the steering column which
will collapse in its length due to the impact of the driver on to the
steering wheel, on a front end crash. This safety device prevents the
possibility of the driver getting injured.
CONE CLUTCH – Clutch utilizing cone shaped member that is forced
into a cone shaped depression in the flywheel, or the other driving unit.
Although no longer used in cars, cone clutch finds some applications in
small riding tractors, heavy power movers etc.
CONSTANT VELOCITY JOINT – Two closely coupled universal joints
arranged so that their acceleration and deceleration effects cancel out
each other, resulting in an output driven shaft speed to be always identical
with drive shaft speed.
CONTACT PATCH – The part of a tyre that is in contact with the road
surface.
CONTROL ARM – A suspension member mounted horizontally with one
end attached to the frame and the other end the knuckle or axle housing.
CORD – A string or thread that makes up the fabric used in tyreplys.
CORNERING WEAR – A type of tyre tread wear caused by taking turns at
excessive speeds.
COUNTERSHAFT – Intermediate shaft that receives motion from one
shaft and transmits it to another. It may be fixed (gears turn on it) or it
may be free to rotate. In the transmission countershaft is driven by the
clutch gear, gears on the countershaft drive gears on the main shaft
when the latter are shifted into gear.
COWL – Part of car body between engine firewall and front of dashboard.
CROSS SHAFT (steering) – Shaft in steering box that engages steering
shaft worm. Cross shaft is splined to pitman arm.
CURB WEIGHT – The weight of the complete vehicle with its normal load,
less driver and passengers but with a full tank of fuel, engine and vehicle
oil and coolant.
CUT OUT – operates as an automatic switch which connects and disconnects
the battery with the generator, according to the speed of the latter.
DAMPERS – are nothing but a piston in a cylinder filled with oil or gas.
The damper restrains undesirable bounce of the sprung vehicle mass
and restrains the wheel assembly from loosing ground contact by being
excited at its natural frequency.
DASH BOARD – Part of body containing driving and control instruments,
switches etc.
DEAD AXLE – Axle that does not rotate or deliver power but merely forms
a base upon which wheels may be mounted.
DEDION – Rear axle set up in which driving wheels are attached to the
frame by a central pivot. Differential unit is bolted to frame and is
connected to the driving wheels by drive axles.
DEPENDENT SUSPENSION – Wheel connected through an axle member
so that movement of one wheel moves the other wheel.
DIAGONAL SPLIT BRAKE SYSTEM – A brake system design that will
allow application of brakes on one front wheel and a diagonally
opposite rear wheel, when part of brake system fails.
DIAPHRAGM CLUTCH – Uses a diaphragm or conical spring instead of
coil springs to produce adequate pressure required for keeping the
clutch in the engaged position.
DIFFERENTIAL – A mechanism between axles that permit one wheel to
turn at a different speed than the other while transmitting power from
the drive shaft to the wheel axles, when the vehicle is negotiating a turn.
DIFFERENTIAL CASE – A steel unit to which the ring gear is attached.
Differential case drives spider gears and forms an inner boaring surface
for axle and gears.
DIFFERENTIAL LOCK – The differential lock grips one or both of the

side gears to the differential case. This prevents their rotation on the
pins. This enables a larger torque to be transmitted to the gripping
wheel than that to the slipping wheel.
DIRECT ACTING SHOCK ABSORBER – Type of shock absorber which
shortens or lengthens in action. Also called telescopic shock absorber.
DIRECT DRIVE – Such as high gear when crankshaft and drive shaft revolve
at same speed.
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY (steering) – Ability of vehicle to move
forward in straight line with minimum of driver control. Vehicle with
good directional stability will not be unduly affected by side wind,
road irregularities etc.
DISC BRAKE – When the brake pedal is depressed, pads lined with friction
material are forced towards one another. In doing so, they come in
contact with the disc (attached to the wheel) which normally rotates
between them. This provides braking effort.
DISC WHEEL – Wheel constructed of stamped sheet.
DIVE – The front wheel of the vehicle lowering during braking.
DOLLY BLOCKS – Blocks of metal, variously shaped and contoured, used
to straighten body panels and fenders. The dolly block is held on one
side of the panel while the other side is struck with a special hammer.
DOUBLE LEADING SHOE – A drum brake having two leading shoes and
no trailing shoes. Each shoe has its own actuating mechanism and pivot.
DOUBLE PISTON CALIPER – A hydraulic brake caliper with two pistons
and provision for applying hydraulic pressure equally to both pistons.
The caliper body is fixed solidly.
DOWN SHIFT – Shifting to lower gear.
DOUBLE LEADING BRAKE – A drumbrake assembly with both front
shoes self energized during forward wheel rotation.
DOUBLE REDUCTION AXLE – In the double reduction or tripple
reduction type final drive, the required speed reduction is obtained in
two or more steps. This enables higher torque to be available at the
road wheels. In heavy duty and off highway vehicles, multiple reduction
is used.
DOUBLE TRAILING BRAKE – A drum brake assembly with both shoes

self energized during rearward wheel rotation only.
DRAG – To accelerate a vehicle from standing start, over course one fourth
mile in length. Also used by some drivers when referring to challenging
another driver to an acceleration race.
DRAG LINK – A steel rod connecting pitman arm to one of steering knuckles.
On some installations, drag link connects pitman arm to a centre idler arm.
DRAGSTER – Car especially built for drag racing.
DRAG WHEEL – Special steering wheel used on some dragsters. Often
consists of cross bar spoke and portion of rim on each end.
DRIP MOULDING – is a U shaped channel, added to the side rails of the
roof panel. It catches water on the roof and direct it to the back of the
car during raining.
DRIVE LINE or DRIVE TRAIN – Propeller shaft, universal joints etc.
connecting transmission output shaft to axle pinion gear shaft.
DRIVE PINION – A gear in the differential connected to the drive shaft.
DRIVE or PROPELLER SHAFT SAFETY STRAP – A metal strap or
straps, surrounding drive shaft to prevent shaft from falling to ground
in the event of a universal joint or shaft failure.
DRIVE SHAFT – An assembly of one or two universal joints connected to a
hollow tube and used to transmit torque and motion. A shaft in the power
train that extends from the transmission to the differential and transmits
power from one to the other. Also called PROPELLER SHAFT.
DROP CENTRE RIM – Centre section of rim being lower than two outer
edges. This allows bead of tyre to be pushed into lower area on one
side while the other side is pulled over and off the flange.
DROPPED AXLE – Front axle altered so as to lower the frame of the vehicle.
Consists of bending axle downward at outer ends (solid front axle).
DRUM BRAKE – A brake unit using curved brake shoes which press against
the inner circumference of a metal drum to produce braking action.
DUALS – Two sets of exhaust pipes and mufflers one for each bank of cylinders.
DUAL BRAKE SYSTEM – Tandem or dual master cylinder to provide a
brake system that has two separate hydraulic systems, one operating the
front brakes, the other operating the rear brakes.
DUAL SERVO BRAKES – A drum brake assembly with both front and
rear shoes, self energized during forward and rearward wheel rotations.
DUMMY AXLE – provided in some vehicles increases the load carrying
capacity of the vehicle. Wheels on the dummy axle can rotate freely.
DUNY BUGGY – Off road vehicle set up to run on sand.
ELLIOT TYPE AXLE – Solid bar front axle on which ends span or straddle
steering knuckle.
EMERGENCY BRAKE – is the hand brake, operated by a lever, is used when
the vehicle is left parked and prevents the vehicle from moving. The hand
brake can be applied to stop the vehicle when the service brake fails.
EPICYCLIC GEAR – In the epicyclic gearing, at least one gear not only
rotates about its own axis, but also rotates about some other axis.
EQUALIZER LINK – A common connector in the parking brake system
that causes both rear brakes to be applied with the same cable tension.
EVASIVE MANEUVER – Rapid steering changes to avoid obstacles in the
path of the vehicle.
EXPANSION TANK – A tank at the top of an automobile radiator which
provides room for heated coolant to expand and give off any air that
may be trapped in the coolant. Also used in some fuel tanks to prevent
fuel from spilling from the tank because of expansion.
FADE (brake) – A condition that occurs when there is little braking effect
with full brake pedal force.
FIFTH WHEEL – is the swivelling type arrangement at the rear of a tractor
unit. The fifth wheel carries the front part of the semitrailer.
FINAL DRIVE – The final gear reduction between the engine and the drive
wheels.
FIXED CALIPER DISC BRAKES – Disc brakes using a caliper which is
fixed in position and cannot move.
FLOATING CALIPER DISC BRAKES – Disc brakes using a caliper
mounted through rubber bushings which permit the caliper to float,
or move, when the brakes are applied.
FLUID FLY WHEEL – A liquid coupling used to transmit the engine effort
(torque) to a clutch and transmission. This coupling is always a major
part of the engine flywheel.
FOOT PRINT – Area of road that is in contact with the tyre.

FORWARD CONTROL TRUCK – has the engine either in or below the
driver’s cabin.
FORWARD EFFICIENCY – is the ratio of the amount of driver input
torque which is available at the wheels to turn the same to the total
amount of input torque from the driver at the steering wheel.
FOUR WHEEL DRIVE – Some cross country vehicles (Jeeps) have this
arrangement. In this case, the engine power is transmitted to all the
four wheels of the vehicle. The main advantage of this arrangement is
the entire vehicle weight is available for traction.
FOUR WHEEL STEERING – Type of steering system in which all the four
wheels of a vehicle are turned for steering.
FOUR SPEED TRANSMISSION – A transmission with four forward
speeds or gear ratios.
FRAME – The assembly of metal structural parts and channel sections that
forms the base and supports the engine and body and is supported by
the vehicle wheels.
FRONT AXLE – In a vehicle, the front axle transmits the weight of the
front part of the vehicle to the road surface through the front wheels. It
also carries the mechanism for steering the vehicle. In the case of front
wheel drive, it incorporates both steering and driving mechanisms.
FRONT END GEOMETRY – The angular relationship between the front
wheels, wheel attaching parts, and vehicle frame. Includes camber, caster,
king pin inclination, toe in and toe out on turns.
FULL FLOATING AXLE – An axle design usually used on heavy trucks
where the vehicle weight is carried by bearings in the wheel hubs, or the
drive wheels and the axles are used only to transfer driving torque.
GEAR – A wheel with teeth that engage or mesh with teeth of another
wheel.
GEAR BOX – A unit which has a series of gears and shafts to vary the speed
of the gearbox output shaft compared to the engine speed. This in turn
increases the torque and thereby improves acceleration of the vehicle.
GEAR CLASH – A condition in which the gears grind during shifting.

GEAR RATIO – The ratio of the number of teeth on two gears to mesh
with each other.
GENERATOR – is the device which converts mechanical energy from
the automobile engine into electrical energy. When the generator is
sufficiently turned by the engine, it furnishes electrical energy for
all the vehicles circuits and replenishes the battery to keep it fully
charged.
GRAVITY BLEEDING – A process used to remove air from the brake
system using the natural height of the fluid in the master cylinder above
the wheel cylinder.
GRIP COEFFICIENT – is numerically equal to the ratio of the force causing
uniform wheel slip to the normal road resistance.
HALF AXLE DRIVE SHAFTS – Two in number, transmit the driving torque
from the final drive and differential unit to the driving road wheels.
HANDLING – The ease of maneuvering a vehicle without slipping or
skidding.
HARSHNESS – Bumpy ride produced by a stiff suspension.
HEEL – Anchor end of a brake shoe.
HOTCHKISS DRIVE – A rear suspension with open propeller shafts with
two or three universal joints. Braking torques are transferred to the
frame through links, control arms or leaf springs.
HORN RELAY – A relay connected between the battery and horns, when
energized by closing of the horn button, it connects the horn to the battery.
HYDRAULIC BRAKE – A brake system using hydraulic fluid, piston and
cylinders to provide extremely high pressure for brake application.
HYDRAULIC CLUTCH – A clutch that uses hydraulic pressure to actuate
the clutch. Used in heavy duty equipment and where the engine is
away from the drivers compartment so that it would be difficult to
use mechanical linkages.
HYDRAULIC CONTROL VALVES – A system of valves that senses driving
conditions and automatically shifts the transmission.
HYPOID GEARS – Drive pinion and ring gears whose shape allows them
to mesh off centre.
IMPENDING SKID – The tyre traction point at which any increase in side
or tractive load will produce tyre skid.
INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION – A type of suspension system in which each
wheel is independently supported by a spring. A suspension that allows up
and down movement of one wheel without affecting the opposite wheel.
INNER TUBE (tyre) – The inside rubber tube assembled in the tyre casing,
it maintains the air at sufficient pressure to inflate the casing and
adequately support the vehicle weight.
INTEGRAL BODY – has the longitudinal and cross members of the chassis
incorporated in the frame work of the load carrying body. With this
arrangement, part of the load previously carried by the chassis, is
diffused through the body structure.
ISOFLARE – A brake tube flaring method that upsets the tube and allows a
strong, secure attachment when used with the proper tube nut and seal.
JOUNCE – A compression load on the springs as the space between the
frame and the axle is reduced.
JOUNCE BUMPER – A rubber bumper used to absorb shock during full
suspension system movement.
KING PIN – The steel pin on which the steering knuckle pivots, it attaches
the steering knuckle to the knuckle support or axle.
KING PIN INCLINATION – Inward tilt of the king pin from the vertical.
KINGPIN OFFSET – is the distance between the centre of the tyre contact
patch and intersection of the kingpin or steering axis with the ground.
Kingpin offset is also called scrub radius.
KNOCK BACK – Slight axial movement that pushes the caliper pistons into
their bore. This causes clearance between the brake lining and the rotor.
KNUCKLE – The part of the suspension that connects the control arms and
supports the wheel spindle.
LATERAL LOAD (tyre) – The force on the side of the tyre tread.
LEADING SHOE – A brake shoe that has the drum rotating from the toe
toward heel.
LEADING TRAILING BRAKE – A drum brake assembly having one shoe
energized in either forward or rearward wheel rotation.
LEAF SPRING – A spring made up of a series of flat steel plates of graduated
length, assembled one on top of another.
LEVEL CONTROL (automatic) – A suspension system which compensates

for variations in load in the rear of the car, positioning the rear at a
predesigned level regardless of load.
LIMITED SLIP DIFFERENTIAL – A differential allowing unequal torques
to be delivered to the axle shafts.
LINKAGE POWER STEERING – A type of power steering in which the
power steering units (power cylinder and valve) are an integral part of
the steering linkage.
LORD LEVELING SYSTEM – A system used to level a vehicle that is
heavily loaded.
LORD RANGE (tyre) – The amount of weight that can be safely carried by a
tyre. It indicates the number of plies at which a tyre is rated. Load range B
equals 4 ply rating, C equals 6 ply rating, and D equals 8 ply rating.
LUG – The flange stud on an axle or hub on which the drum and wheel are
fastened.
MCPHERSON STRUT SUSPENSION – A suspension system in which
both wheels are attached to a rigid rear axle housing.
MANUALLY OPERATED TRANSMISSION – A transmission that is
shifted from one speed to another by the operator (driver).
MASTER CYLINDER – The liquid filled cylinder in the hydraulic braking
system where hydraulic pressure is developed by depression of the brake
pedal or movement of the brake lever.
MECHANICAL BRAKES – Brakes operated by mechanical linkage (cables
and levers) between the brake pedal and the brakes at the car wheels.
METALLIC BRAKE LINING – A lining having metallic properties used
to provide high temperature braking efficiency.
METERING VALVE – A valve that delays pressure build up to the front
brakes of a four wheeled vehicle.
MINOR BRAKE ADJUSTMENT – Adjustment of brakes to compensate
for brake lining wear.
MODULATOR – A vacuum canister mounted to the outside of the
automatic transmission that senses engine load.
MULTIPLE DISC CLUTCH – A clutch that has more than one friction
disc, usually there are several driving discs and several driven discs,
alternately placed.
NEUTRAL STEER – A vehicle that will maintain the selected turn with no
driver input.
NON DIRECTIONAL SENSE – Steering does not lead in any direction.
NON LOAD CARRYING BODY – In this, the loads on the vehicle are
transferred to the suspension system entirely by a separate chassis.
The body is isolated from the chassis deflection by rubber mountings.
ONE WAY CLUTCH – A clutch that holds in one direction but allows
movement in another direction.
OVER DRIVE – A device in the power train of some vehicles that introduces
an extra set of gears into the power train. This causes the propeller
shaft to overdrive or drive faster than the engine crankshaft. Engine
speed is thus reduced without reduction of vehicle speed.
OVER RUNNING CLUTCH – A type of clutch that will transmit rotary
motion in one direction only, when rotary motion attempts to pass
through in other direction, then the driving member over runs and
does not pass motion to the other member.
OVER STEER – The tendency of a vehicle to turn sharper than the turn
selected by the driver.
PANHARD ROD – A control rod that connects the frame on one side of
the vehicle to the axle housing on the other side to keep the axle
housing centred under the vehicle.
PARKING BRAKES – Mechanically operated brakes that operate
independently of the (hydraulic) service brakes on the vehicle. They
may be set for parking the vehicle or holding the vehicle against rolling.
Also called an emergency brake.
PASCAL’S LAW – A principle of hydraulics which states that pressure at any
point in a confined liquid is same in every direction and applies equal
force on equal areas.
PEDAL BLEEDING – A method of removing air from the hydraulic system
parts by applying the brake to raise the pressure in the system to help
move the air through the system when the bleeder valves are opened.
PEDAL PULSATION – A rapid up and down movement of the clutch
pedal during operation.
PITMAN ARM – That part of the steering gear which is linked to the steering
knuckle arms of the wheels; it swings back and forth for steering.
PITMAN ARM STOPS – On some cars (particularly those using linkage

power steering), stops are used to prevent excessive pitman arm
movement and thus steering linkage movement.
PITMAN SHAFT – The shaft to which the pitman arm is attached in a
steering gear.
PLANETARY GEARBOX – A system of gears used in an automatic
transmission, a sun gear, planet gears, a carrier and a ring gear.
PLIES – The layers of cord fabric in a tyre carcass, each layer is a ply.
PLYSTEER – The tendency of a tyre to always turn in one direction as it
rolls. This is the result of the way the tyre was constructed.
PNEUMATIC TYRES – Tyres that are filled with air to the required pressure.
POWER BOOSTER – A device used to increase the drivers brake pedal
force going to the master cylinder, without an accompanying increase
in pedal travel.
POWER BRAKE – Conventional brake system that utilizes engine vacuum
to operate vacuum power piston. Power piston applies pressure to
brake pedal, or in some cases, directly to master cylinder piston. This
reduces the amount of pedal pressure that the driver must exert to
stop the vehicle. Also called POWER ASSISTED BRAKE.
POWER RACK – In the saginan power steering unit, a rack that meshes
with a sector on the pitman shaft and transmits to the shaft, power
from the power cylinder.
POWER STEERING – A device that uses hydraulic pressure to multiply
the drivers effort as he turns the steering wheel so that less steering
effort is required.
POWER TRAIN or DRIVE TRAIN – The group of mechanisms that
carry the rotary motion developed in the engine to the vehicle wheels,
it includes the clutch, transmission, drive shaft differential and axles.
PRESSURE CAP (radiator) – A radiator cap with valves that causes the
cooling system to operate under pressure and thus at a somewhat higher
and more efficient temperature.
PRESSURE PLATE – That part of the clutch which exerts pressure against
the friction disc, it is mounted on and rotates with the flywheel.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE – The systematic inspection, detection

and correction of failures in a engine, or in a vehicle, either before they
occur, or before they develop into major defects.
PRIMARY SHOE – A brake shoe moved by a wheel cylinder to apply the
brake.
PROPELLER SHAFT – A shaft in the power train that extends from the
transmission to the differential and transmits power from one to the other.
PROPORTIONING VALVE – A valve used to maintain the correct
proportion of fluid pressure between the front disc or drum brakes
and rear drum brakes. Usually the rear brake pressure is a fraction of
front brake pressure.
PUNCTURE SEALING TYRES AND TUBES – Tyres and tubes coated
on the inside with a plastic material. Air pressure in the tyre or tube
forces that material through holes made by punctures. It hardens on
contact with the air to seal the puncture.
RACK AND PINION STEERING GEAR – A steering gear that uses a
pinion on the end of the steering shaft which is meshed with a rack on
the major cross member of the steering linkage.
RADIAL BIAS TYRE – A tyre in which the plies are laid on radially, or
perpendicular to the rim, with a circumferential belt on top of them.
The rubber tread is vulcanized on top of the belt and plies.
RADIAL PLY TYRE – Cords running directly across the tyre carcass from
bead to bead.
RADIAL SPRING RATE – The amount of radial load required to deflect a
tyre (one cm) unit distance.
RADIATOR – In the cooling system, the device that removes heat from the
coolant passing through it, it takes hot coolant from the engine and
returns the coolant to the engine at a lower temperature. The hot
coolant is cooled in the radiator for recirculation.
RADIATOR PRESSURE CAP – The cap placed on the radiator filler tube
which pressurizes the cooling system for more efficient operation.
RADIATOR SHUTTER SYSTEM – A system of engine temperature control
used mostly on trucks, that controls the amount of air flowing through
the radiator by use of a shutter system.
REACTION CONTROL – A feedback mechanism that gives the driver a

feel of the amount of input effort being applied.
REAR AXLE ASSEMBLY – A system of gears and axles that transfers power
from the drive line assembly to the driving wheels of the automobile.
REAR AXLE RATIO – The ratio between the drive pinion and the ring gear
in the differential assembly.
REAR END TORQUE – Reactionary torque applied to the rear axle housing
as torque is applied to the wheels; rear end torque attempts to turn
the axle housing in a direction opposite to wheel rotation.
REBOUND – An expansion of a suspension spring after it has been
compressed as the result of jounce.
RECAPPING – A form of tyre repair in which a cap of new materials is
placed on the old tread and vulcanized into place.
RECIRCULATING BALL AND NUT STEERING GEAR – A type of
steering gear in which there is a nut (meshing with a gear sector)
assembled on a worm, balls circulate between the nut and worm threads.
RELEASE LEVER – In the clutch, a lever that is moved by throw out bearing
movement; the movement causes clutch spring pressure to be relieved
so that the clutch is released or uncoupled.
RETREAD – A used tyre on which a new tread section is molded.
REVERSE FLUSHING – A method of cleaning a radiator or engine cooling
system by flushing in the direction opposite to the normal coolant flow.
RIDE – The characteristic feel as one rides in a vehicle.
RIGID REAR SUSPENSION – A rear suspension system in which both
wheels are attached to rigid rear axle housing.
RIM – The metal wheel on which the tyre is mounted.
RING GEAR – A large gear carried by the differential case, meshed with and
driven by the drive pinion.
ROAD RESISTANCE – is the resistance of the road surface, which must be
overcome when a vehicle travels along the road. This consists of friction
between the tyre and road.
ROLLING RESISTANCE – is the resistance caused due to the deformation
of the tyres and road, the friction of the tyres on the road surface and
friction in the wheel bearings.
ROLL STEER – The steering effect as a result of body lean during a turn.
RUNOUT OF WHEEL – Lack of alignment of wheel or gear to the axle so
that the wheel or gear runout or move out of alignment, as wheel or
gear rotates.
SAFETY RIM – A type of wheel rim having a hump on the inner edge of
the ledge on which the tyre bead rides. The hump helps hold the tyre
on the rim in case of blow out.
SCRUB RADIALS – The distance on the road surface under the front tyre
between an extension of the pivot axis and the centre of weight.
SCUFF – The tyre slide on the road surface during operation.
SCUFF TRAVEL – The amount of side travel of the tyre as the wheel moves
from maximum jounce to maximum rebound.
SEAT ADJUSTER – A device to permit forward and backward (and
sometimes upward and downward) movement of the front seat.
SECONDARY SHOE – A brake shoe that is operated by a primary shoe to
apply brake.
SELF ADJUSTING BRAKE DESIGNS – Brakes that automatically
compensate for wear of the brake linings.
SELF ALIGNING TORQUE – The natural tendency of the tyre to return
to the neutral position after being turned.
SEMIMETALLIC BRAKE LINING – A brake lining combining both
metallic and organic materials for improved braking performance.
SENSTRONIC BRAKE – CONTROL (SBC) – is basically a brake by wire
system which eliminates the need for mechanical linkage between the
brake pedal and brake master cylinder.
SEQUENTIAL GEAR BOX – is an electromechanical device that replaces
the conventional gear shift mechanism and is bolted to the tunnel
section or the floor of the car. It converts the conventional floor shifter
to an electronically activated sequential shift system that is electronically
controlled by microprocessors.
SERIES – The designation of a tyre aspect ratio.
SERVICE BRAKE SYSTEM– The main braking system of the vehicle which
controls braking effect proportional to the drivers demand.
SHACKLE – Swinging support by which one end of a leaf spring is attached

to the vehicle frame.
SHIM – A slotted strip of metal used as a spacer to adjust front end alignment
on many cars and to make small correction in the position of the
body sheet metal and other parts.
SHIMMY – Rapid oscillations, in wheel shimmy, for example, the front
wheel tries to turn in and out alternately and rapidly (a violent front
wheel shake). This causes the front end of the car to oscillate or shimmy.
SHOCK ABSORBER – The assembly on the vehicle that checks excessively
rapid spring movement and oscillations. A device placed at each vehicle
wheel to regulate spring rebound and compression.
SHOE – The part of a brake that supports the lining.
SHORT LONG ARM SUSPENSION – A suspension system in which a
long and a short control arms are used to support the wheel.
SINGLE LEADING SHOE – A drum brake having two shoes; one is leading
another is trailing. Leading shoe tends to wedge itself into the brake
drum and provides more braking action than the trailing shoe.
SINGLE REDUCTION AXLE – In the single reduction type final drive,
the required speed reduction (say up to 7 to 1) is obtained in one step.
SIPES – Slits in the tyre tread to produce more blade surface for traction.
SKID – A tyre sliding on the road surface.
SKID CONTROL – A device that operates to prevent wheel lock up during
braking and thus skidding.
SLIDING MESH GEAR BOX – The gear box consists of three shafts and a
set of gears, gear selector mechanism and gear shift lever. Different
gears are engaged by sliding the appropriate gears.
SLIP ANGLE – The angle between the tyre and the actual directional
movement.
SLIP JOINT – In the power train, a variable length connection that permits
the drive shaft (propeller shaft) to change its effective length.
SOCIETY OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERS (SAE) – A professional
engineering society responsible for setting many vehicle standards used
in the world today.
SPIN BALANCER – A car tyre balancer which turns the raised tyre at a road
speed where imbalance can be detected by wheel shake.
SPINDLE (steering system) – A part of the steering knuckle assembly on
which the front wheels are mounted.
SPONGY PEDAL – A brake pedal that feels soft or spongy.
SPRING FREQUENCY – Springs are also compared in frequency. Springs
which return quickly to their original shape or oscillate rapidly after
being deflected are said to have higher frequency than those that return
or oscillate slowly.
SPRING RATE – The flexibility of a spring depends on the property called
spring rate. It is defined as the weight in kg required to deflect it one
cm. A soft spring has a lower rate than a stiff or inflexible spring.
SPRING SHACKLE – Provides a means for the leaf spring assembly to
compensate for changes in its length.
SPRING SUSPENSION – The operating components of a spring suspension
system, which absorbs the force of road shocks by flexing and twisting.
SPRUNG WEIGHT – That part of the vehicle which is supported on springs
(the frame and body for example).
SQUIRM – The twist of the tyre tread in the foot print.
STABILIZER SHAFT – An interconnecting torsion bar between left and
right lower suspension arms on a vehicle which reduces body roll on
turns and adds stability.
STAR WHEEL – An adjustable link between the primary and secondary
brake shoes.
STEER ANGLE – The angle the wheels are turned to from straight ahead.
STEERING AND IGNITION LOCK – A locking device that locks the
ignition switch in the off position, and also locks the steering wheel
so that it cannot be turned.
STEERING ARM – The arm attached to the steering knuckle to turn the
knuckle, and wheel, for steering.
STEERING AXIS – The centre line of the ball joints in a front suspension
system extended to the road surface.
STEERING AXIS INCLINATION – The inward tilt of the steering axis or
front wheel pivot from the vertical.
STEERING COLUMN – The housing that supports the steering shaft.

STEERING GEAR – That part of the steering system, located at the lower
end of the steering shaft, that carries the rotary motion of the steering
wheel to the vehicle wheels for steering.
STEERING KICKBACK – Sharp rapid movements of steering wheel as
the front wheels encounter obstructions in road, the shocks of these
encounters kickback to the steering wheel.
STEERING KNUCKLE – The front wheel spindle or stub axle which is
supported by the king pin, so that it and the wheel can be turned for
steering. Part of the front suspension system.
STEERING LINKAGE – Linkage that connects the steering gears to the
front wheels.
STEERING RATIO – The number of degrees the steering wheel is turned
divided by the number of degrees the vehicle wheels are turned.
STEERING SHAFT – Shaft extending from steering gear to the steering
wheel.
STEERING STOPS – limit the angular deflections of the front wheels.
They avoid rubbing of tyres against the frame or against the fenders
which would cause undue wear and tear of the tyres.
STEERING SYSTEM – The mechanism that enables the driver to turn the
wheel axles (usually the front) and thus turn the wheels away from the
straight ahead position so that the vehicle can be guided.
STEERING WHEEL – The wheel at the top of the steering shaft in the
drivers compartment which is used to guide or steer, the vehicle.
STONE SHIELD – is bolted to the radiator support and the fenders. It fits
beneath the bumper of the car. It prevents striking of small flying stones
on to the radiator grille and radiator and thus avoids their damage.
STOP LIGHT SWITCH – A switch applied by the master cylinder pressure
that turns on brake lights.
STOPPING DISTANCE – is the distance in which a vehicle will be brought
to rest from steady speed, when the brake is applied.
STREAMLINING – The shaping of an object that moves through a medium
(such as air or water) or past which the medium moves, so that less
energy is lost by parting and reuniting of the medium as the object
moves through it.
STUMBLE – The term related to vehicle driveability, the tendency of an

engine to falter and then catch, resulting in a noticeable stumble effect
felt by the driver.
SUSPENSION – The suspension system supports the vehicle body and at
the same time isolates the vehicle and its occupants from shocks and
vibrations generated by the road surface. It also maintains steering
control and stability at all times.
SUSPENSION ARM – In the front suspension, one of the arms is pivoted
at one end to the frame and at the other to the wheel (steering knuckle)
support.
SUSPENSION COMPLIANCE – Rearward and upward movement of
the suspension when the tyre meets an obstacle on the road surface.
SUSPENSION GEOMETRY – The angular action of the suspension as it
goes from its static position to the extremes of travel (compared to
vertical lines).
SYNCHROMESH – A device in the transmission that synchronizes gears
about to be meshed so that there will not be any gear clash. Also
called SYCHRONIZER.
TACTILE SENSOR – A sensor that allows the vehicle operator to feel when
a certain condition is reached. Disc brake pads are made to vibrate when
worn to the point where replacement is necessary and this vibration is
felt in the brake pedal.
TANDEM MASTER CYLINDER – is the unit installed in some large cars
and commercial vehicles have a split hydraulic system with two separate
cylinders and reservoirs in the master cylinder. This avoids the possibility
of complete brake failure due to a fracture in the pipe line leading to
one brake cylinder.
THROWOUT BEARING – Bearing operated by the clutch linkage used to
disengage the clutch.
TIE RODS – In the steering system, the rods that link the pitman arm to
the steering knuckle arms.
TILT STEERING WHEEL – A type of steering wheel which can be tilted
at various angles, due to a flex joint in the steering shaft.
TOE – The leading edge of the brake shoe. The angle between the centre
lines of the front wheels.
TOE IN – The turning in of the front wheels, wheels are closer together at
the front than at the back of the wheels.
TOE OUT – The turning out of the front wheels, where wheels are farther
apart at the front than at the back of the wheels.
TOE OUT DURING TURNS – Difference in angles between the two front
wheels and the car during turns. Inner wheel, in a turn, turns out or toes
out more. Also called steering geometry and cornering wheel relationship.
TORQUE CONVERTOR – A device in the power train consisting of three
or more rotating members. It transmits power from the engine through
a fluid to the reminder of the power train and provides varying drive
ratios with speed reduction and increase in torque.
TORQUE DRIVE TRANSMISSION – A transmission similar to the power
glide but lacking the self shifting ability.
TORQUE TUBE DRIVE – The type of rear suspension in which the torque
tube surrounding the propeller shaft absorbs the rear end torque.
TORSIONAL LOAD – Loads on the brakes and suspension caused by torque.
TORSION BAR SPRING – A long, straight bar, fastened to the frame at
one end and to a suspension part at the other.
TRACKING – The following of the rearwheels, directly behind, or in the
tracks of, the front wheels.
TRACTIVE FORCE – The friction force in the contact patch that causes
torque on the wheel.
TRAILING SHOE – A brake shoe with its anchor at the toe end.
TRAMP – Up and down motion or hopping of the front wheels experienced
at higher speeds due to unbalanced wheels or to excessive wheel run
out. Also called high speed shimmy.
TRANSAXLE – A drive assembly combining the transmission and final drive
assemblies in one casing.
TRANSFER CASE – A unit located at the back of the regular gear box, in
the four wheel drive arrangement. A pinion fixed to the gear box shaft,
drives a wheel in the transfer case. The driven wheel in the transfer
case has a differential which distributes the drive equally between the
front and rear axles.
TRANSMISSION – The device in the power train that provides different
gear ratios between the engine and rear wheels, as well as reverse.
TRANSMISSION DRAIN PLUG – A plug at the bottom of the

transmission to drain the lubricant.
TRANSMISSION FILLER PLUG – A plug on the side of the transmission
used to add transmission lubricant.
TRIM HEIGHT – Specified level, vehicle height above the road surface.
TRIPLE POINT JOINT – A universal joint using bearings on three axes to
maintain a constant plane of drive, making it a constant velocity joint.
TUBED TYRE – Inside the tyre, there is an endless tube fitted with a valve.
Air is forced through the valve and is retained inside the tube under
pressure. The air acts as the cushioning medium.
TUBELESS TYRE – A tyre that has the air sealed between the rim and tyre
and does not use an inner tube.
TURNING RADIUS – The relative angles of the two front wheels during a
turn.
TWO DISC CLUTCH – A clutch having two friction discs for additional
holding power used in heavy duty equipment.
TYRE – The casing and tube assembled on a vehicle wheel to provide
pneumatically cushioned contact and traction with the road.
TYRE BEAD – The inner reinforced edge of a tyre that hold it to the wheel
rim.
TYRE CARCASS – The main structural part of the tyre to which tread
rubber is attached.
TYRE CONTACT PATCH – The part of a tyre that contacts the road
surface making a footprint.
TYRE FOOT PRINT – The area on the road in contact with the tyre.
TYRE FORCE VARIATION – Changes in the tyres radial spring rate as it
rolls under radial loads.
TYRE SLlP – A slight tyre slide while making a turn.
TYRE ROTATION – Changing the position of tyres on the automobile to
evenout the amount of wear.
TYRE RUNOUT – The amount the tyre wobbles as it rotates.
TYRE SERIES – The groupings of tyre sizes having the same aspect ratio.
TYRE TREAD – is that part of the tyre that is designed to run on the road
surface. The tread rubber is grooved with a pattern that will provide
maximum friction force, (which provides good traction and reduces
the possibility of skidding) and minimum noise.
UNDER STEER – The tendency of the vehicle not to turn as much as the
wheels are turned.
UNITIZED CONSTRUCTION – A type of automobile body and frame
construction in which the frame and body parts are welded together to
form a single unit.
UNSPRUNG WEIGHT – That part of the vehicle which is not supported
on springs (the wheels and tyres for example). The vehicle weight moved
by variations in the road surface.
UNIVERSAL JOINT – The part of the drive line assembly that allows for a
change in angle of the drive line as the vehicle goes over bumps.
VACUUM BRAKE – is the device in which the braking effect is due to the
difference of pressures that acts on the opposite sides of a diaphragm.
In this unit, one side of the piston or diaphragm is exposed to atmos-
pheric pressure while the other side to a pressure which is below the
atmospheric pressure.
VARIABLE RATE SPRINGS – provide a low rate for ordinary service and
higher rate for heavy obstruction or loads. These consist of a conventional
spring and below which is placed a small auxiliary spring with several
leaves. Under heavy loads, the auxiliary or helper spring strengthens the
main spring more and more as the main spring is compressed.
VARIABLE RATIO STEERING – A steering gear that provides a different
ratio during parts of a turn.
WADDLE – A sideways vehicle shake due to a faulty radial tyre. Most
noticeable when a vehicle moves slowly.
WANDER – A condition in which the vehicle does not follow a straight
path and randomly drifts in one direction or the other.
WEIGHT TRANSFER – The changes in radial loads on the front and rear
wheel tyres due to the centre of gravity location ring braking.
WHEELS – The wheels (wheel and tyre assembly) support the weight of the
vehicle. The assembly provides ride quality, load carrying capacity, and
vehicle handling characteristics.
WHEEL ALIGNMENT – The position of the front wheels in relation to

the suspension and steering geometry.
WHEEL BALANCER – A device that checks a wheel, either statically or
dynamically, for balance.
WHEEL BASE – Distance between center of the front wheel and center of
rear wheels.
WHEEL CYLINDER – In the hydraulic braking system, hydraulic cylinders
placed in the brake mechanisms at the wheels; hydraulic pressure from
the master cylinder causes the wheel cylinders pistons to move the brake
shoes.
WHEEL FIGHT – The tendency of a steering system to be easily deflected
by uneven road surfaces. Causes changes in toe that result in tyre wear.
WHEEL OFFSET – The distance between wheel attachment flange and the
wheel rim centre plane.
WHEEL PACK BEARING – A preassembled self-lubricated bearing assembly
used on the drive wheels with independent suspension.
WHEEL SIDEWAYS DISPLACEMENT – Sideways movement of the
wheel as the suspension goes from jounce to rebound.
WHEEL SIZES – are indicated by three measurements, namely rim diameter,
rim width and flange height.
WHEELSLlP – Sideways movement of the tyre tread across the foot print.
WHEEL RUNOUT – The amount the wheel wobbles as it rotates.
WHEEL TRAMP – Tendency of the wheel to move up and down so it
repeatedly bears hard or tramps, on the pavement. Sometimes called
high speed shimmy.
WIND SHIELD WIPER – A mechanism which utilizes a rubber blade to
wipe the wind shield, it is either vacuum or electrically operated.
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CHAPTER
25
AIR COMPRESSORS
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY – Actual quantity of water vapour in the air,

usually expressed as so many grains of moisture in a cubic foot of air.
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE – Pressure measured from the true zero or point
of no pressure.
ADIABATIC COMPRESSION – Compression of air without receiving
or giving up heat.
AFTER COOLER – A type of surface heat exchanger in which compressed
air is cooled after compression.
AIR – A gas consisting of mechanical mixture of 23.2% (by weight) of
oxygen 75.5% nitrogen and 1.3% argon, 21 % (by volume) of oxygen,
78.06% nitrogen and 0.94% argon.
AIR COMPRESSOR – A machine (driven by any prime mover), which
compresses air into a receiver to be used at a greater or shorter distance.
AIR COOLED COMPRESSOR – A compressor whose cylinder has cast
integral numerous thin fins to form excess cooling surface exposed to
a draught of cool air which forms the medium to carry off some of the
heat of compression.
AIR ENGINE – A very small reciprocating engine driven by compressed air.
AIR EXHAUSTER – A suction fan, a vacuum pump.
AIR METER – An apparatus used to measure the rate of flow of air or gas.
AIR RECEIVER – A vessel into which compressed air is discharged, to be
stored until required.
ANEMOMETER – An instrument for measuring the velocity of flow of a

gas, either by mechanical or electrical methods.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE – The force exerted by the weight of the
atmosphere on every point with which it is in contact.
AXIAL COMPRESSOR – A multistage, high efficiency compressor
comprising alternate rows of moving and fixed blades attached to a
rotor and its casing respectively. The flow of fluid is essentially parallel
to the axis of the compressor.
BOYLE’S LAW – At constant temperature, the absolute pressure of a gas
varies inversely as its volume.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR – A compressor designed to deliver large
quantities of air or gas at low pressure, moved by centrifugal force
generated by a fast revolving rotor.
CHARLE’S LAW – At constant pressure, the volume of a gas is proportional
to its absolute temperature. At constant volume, the pressure is
proportional to its absolute temperature.
CLEARANCE VOLUME EFFECT – Volumetric efficiency of the
reciprocating compressor depends upon the clearance volume in the air
cylinder. The greater the clearance volume, the greater the volume of
the cylinder occupied by the clearance air which expands and prevents
the entrance of free air during the early part of the admission stroke.
COMPRESSED AIR – Air forced into a smaller space than it originally
occupied. When air is compressed both its pressure and temperature rise.
COMPRESSION CONSTANT – According to Boyle’s law, product of
pressure and volume at any instant is constant, at constant temperature.
COMPRESSION EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the theoretical power required
to compress the amount of air actually delivered to the actual power
developed in the cylinder as shown by the indicator diagram.
COMPRESSOR OVERALL EFFICIENCY – Ratio of actual power
developed in the air cylinder as shown by the indicator diagram to the
power supplied to the compressor shaft.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY – Energy can be transmitted from one
body to another or transformed in its manifestations, but can neither
be created nor destroyed.
Air Compressors 335
DIRECT CONNECTED COMPRESSOR – A compressor in which the

prime mover is attached direct to the compressor without any interposed
transmission such as chain, belt etc.
DISPLACEMENT OF COMPRESSOR – The volume displaced by the
net area of the compressor piston. This is the capacity of an air
compressor, usually expressed in cum per minute.
DOUBLE ACTING COMPRESSOR – A reciprocating compressor in which
compression occurs on either side of the piston during every stroke.
ECCENTRIC AND STRAP – An eccentric is a disc having its axis of rotation
out of its centre. It is equivalent to a crankpin which is so large in diameter
that embraces the shaft to which it is attached and dispenses with arms.
Converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion.
EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the useful work performed by a prime mover to
the energy expended, that is, the output divided by the input.
ENBLOCK CYLINDERS – Two or more cylinders cast integral, that is all
in one casting.
FEATHER VALVE – A valve which consists of a strip of ribbon steel which
covers a slightly narrower slot when the value is closed.
FINGER VALVES – Valves consist of narrow strips of stainless steel, fastened
to the seat at one end and free to flex along their length. Suitable for
light service.
FIXED COMPRESSOR – A compressor mounted upon a permanent base
as concrete for service not requiring removal from place to place.
FREE AIR – Air at atmospheric condition at the point where a compressor is
installed.
FREE AIR UNLOADER – An automatic device that varies the amount of
air or gas being pumped.
HOPPER COOLED SYSTEM – A non (external) circulating system. The
cylinder has an open water jacket of considerable volume.
INDICATED HORSE POWER – The actual power developed within a
cylinder as calculated from the indicator diagram.
INDICATED WORK – The work of compression plus the work of
expulsion of the air from the cylinder minus the workdone on the
piston by the pressure of the air during admission.
INLET LINE LOADER – An unloader that automatically opens and closes

the inlet line under pressure variations in the receivers.
INTERCOOLER – A type of surface heat exchanger placed between two
cylinders of a two stage compressor so that heat of compression generated
in the first stage cylinder may be removed (in part or whole) from the
air as it passes through the intercooler to the second stage cylinder.
ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSION – Compression of air at constant
temperature. Law of compression is PV= constant.
KINETIC ENERGY – Energy due to momentum, that is, the energy of a
moving body, which is equivalent to saying, dynamic inertia.
MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT – Relationship between the
unit of heat and unit of work.
MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE – The average resultant pressure acting
on the piston during the stroke, that is the effective pressure which
compresses and discharges the air. This is the difference between the
mean forward pressure and the mean back pressure.
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY – The ratio of the air indicated horse power
to the brake horse power supplied to the compressor shaft.
MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION – Dividing the compression of air into
two or more stages so as to obtain the work saving due to a nearer
approach to isothermal compression by using intercooling.
PISTON SPEED – The total distance travelled by the piston in one minute,
not the actual velocity at any given instant.
PORTABLE COMPRESSOR – A small compressor which is easily moved
from place to place.
POWER – The rate at which work is done, that is work divided by the time
in which it is done. Unit of power is horse power equal to 4500 mkg/
minute.
POWER DRIVEN COMPRESSOR – A compressor having a separate prime
mover and connected by a suitable transmission such as a belt.
PRIME MOVER – An apparatus or mechanism whereby motion and force
are received directly from some natural source of energy (fuel) and
transmitted into some motion by means of which the power may be
conveniently applied.
Air Compressors 337
R (gas constant) – An experimentally determined constant which is equal to

the mechanical work done by the expansion of unit weight of a perfect
gas at a constant pressure while heat is added to increase its temperature
by one degree centigrade.
RATIO OF COMPRESSION – Ratio of final volume to the initial volume
during compression.
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR – A compressor having a piston which
is made to move to and fro, that is forward and backward and thereby
compresses and delivers air.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY – Degree of saturation of the air with water vapour
as determined by the use of the wet and dry bulb thermometers.
RESISTANCE – The quality of not yielding to force or external pressure, that
quality of a body which acts in opposition to the pressure of another.
ROTARY COMPRESSOR – A compressor having a vane rotor or its
equivalent mounted eccentrically in a stationary casing.
SEMI FIXED COMPRESSOR – A unit larger than the portable type where
skids are used in place of being mounted on a truck, the adaptation
being for service where frequent moving is not necessary.
SEPARATOR – Device through which the compressed air after being cooled
in the after cooler, is sent so as to separate the moisture from the air by
centrifugal force.
SINGLE ACTING COMPRESSOR – A reciprocating compressor in
which compression takes place on one side of the piston during
alternate strokes.
SINGLE STAGE COMPRESSOR – A compressor in which the compression
cycle takes place in a single cylinder.
SLIPPAGE EFFICIENCY – The ratio of volume of air actually measured
to the apparent volume accounted for by the indicator diagram.
SPECIFIC HEAT OF AIR – Amount of heat that is to be supplied to raise
the temperature of 1 kg of air through 1 degree C.
SPECIFIC HEAT OF AIR AT CONSTANT PRESSURE – Total specific
heat of air which is made up of (1) the internal work of raising the
temperature of air, and (2) the external work of pushing away the
atmosphere to make room for its expansion.
THROW OF THE ECCENTRICITY – Twice the eccentricity or the

amount of reciprocating motion produced.
TWO STAGE COMPRESSOR – A compressor in which compression
begins in one cylinder and is completed in the second cylinder. It
divides the compression range between the two cylinders and permits
cooling between the cylinders.
TWO STAGE CYLINDER – A cylinder of special construction with a step
piston, the low pressure being at the top while the high pressure is
formed around the trunk.
VALVE GEAR – The mechanism or combination of parts by which a
reciprocating or to and fro motion is imparted to the valve from the
rotary motion of the shaft.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY – The ratio of the actual number of cubic
meter of free air (at 1.03 kscm abs and 15° C) compressed per unit of
time to the number of cubic meter of piston displacement during that
time.
WATER COOLED COMPRESSOR – A compressor whose cylinder is
water jacketed and through which flows a current of cold water which
functions as a transmission medium to carry off some of the heat of
compression.
WORK – The overcoming of resistance through a certain distance by the
expenditure of energy.
CHAPTER
26
REFRIGERATION AND AIR
CONDITIONING
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY – The weight of the water vapour which is

associated with unit quantity of air.
ABSORBER – A device for absorbing a refrigerant, a low side element in an
absorption system.
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM – One in which the
refrigerant, as it is absorbed in another liquid, maintains the pressure
difference needed for successful operation of the system.
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATOR – A plant in which ammonia is
continuously evaporated from an aqueous solution under pressure,
condensed, allowed to evaporate (so absorbing heat), and then
reabsorbed.
ABSORPTIVITY – Ability of a material to absorb heat.
ACCUMULATOR – A steel shell partly filled with liquid refrigerant,
the space above which is maintained by the compressor at a pressure
corresponding to the required refrigerant temperature. The shell is
placed in a suction line for separating liquid entrained in the suction
gas.
ACTIVATED AMMONIA – Desiccant which operates by adsorption of
water molecules. A form of aluminium oxide AlO2·
ACROLEIN – A warning agent having the formula CH2 CH CHO is often
used with methyl chloride to call attention to the escape of refrigerant.
The material has a compelling, pungent odour and causes irritation of
the throat and eyes.
ACTUATORS – Secondary control mechanisms which function in response

to the requirements of the primary group in actually controlling some
part of the refrigeration system.
ADIABATIC COMPRESSION – Compression of a vapour or gas in such
circumstances that there is insufficient time for any substantial exchange
of heat between it and its surroundings.
ADIABATIC COOLING – Method in which paramagnetic salts are
precooled, and then demagnetized, thereby producing further cooling.
AERATION – A term generally employed with reference to air circulation
or ventilation. In milk cooling, it refers to a method where the milk
flow over refrigerated surfaces is exposed to the atmosphere.
AIR CIRCULATION – A method for natural or forced motion of air.
AIR CONDITIONING – The simultaneous control of all, or at least the
first three of the following factors affecting the physical and chemical
conditions of the atmosphere within a structure: Temperature, humidity,
motion, distribution, dust, bacteria, or lesser degree human health or
comfort.
AIR CONDITIONING UNIT – Equipment designed as a specific air
treating combination, consisting of means for ventilation, air circulation,
air cleaning and heat transfer with control means for maintaining
temperature and humidity within prescribed limits.
AIR COOLED CONDENSERS – Condenser used to cool the refrigerant,
the cooling effect depends on air drawn through tubes and fins for a
good distribution of air.
AIR COOLER – The cold accumulator used in the Linde process of air
liquefaction for the preliminary cooling of the air.
AIR DUCTS – Pipes or channels through which air is distributed throughout
building or machinery for heating and ventilation.
AIR INFILTRATION – The inleakage of air through cracks and crevices
and through doors, windows or other openings, caused by wind pressure
or temperature difference.
AIR LIQUEFIER – A type of gas refrigerating machine based on the
STIRLING CYCLE, the cycle of the hot air engine.
AIR WASHER – An enclosure in which air is forced through a spray of water
in order to cleanse, humidify or dehumidify the air.
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 341
ALFOL – Technical name for thin corrugated aluminium foil in narrow

strips, used for heat insulation, for which it is effective by reason of the
numerous small air cells formed when packed.
AMBIENT SENSOR – A temperature sensor that provides an outside air
temperature signal for an automatic temperature control type air
conditioning system.
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE – In a domestic or commercial system having an
air cooled condenser, it is the temperature of the air entering this condenser.
AMMONIA-NH3 – One of the earliest compounds used as a refrigerant.
AMMONIA MACHINE – An abbreviation for a compression refrigerating
machine using ammonia as a refrigerant. Similarly, freon, sulphur dioxide
machine etc.
ANALYSER – Device used in the high side of an absorption system for
increasing the concentration of vapour entering rectifier or condenser.
ANTIFREEZE LIQUID – A substance added to the refrigerant to prevent
formation of ice crystals at the expansion valve.
ATMOSPHERIC CONDENSER – A condenser operated with water which
is exposed to the atmosphere.
AUTOMATIC EXPANSION VALVE – A pressure actuated device which
regulates the flow of refrigerant from the liquid line into the evaporator
to maintain a constant evporator pressure.
AUTOMATIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEM – One which regulates itself
to maintain a definite set of conditions by means of automatic controls
and valves usually responsive to temperature or pressure.
BASIC REFRIGERATION CONTROL – Device that starts, stops, regulates
and/ or protects the refrigeration system and its components.
BAUDELOT EVAPORATOR – An open type of cooler in which the liquid
to be cooled flows from distributing troughs or headers over a cooling
surface consisting of sets of grids or a pair of stamped corrugated metal
sheets forming channels.
BLEEDER – A pipe sometimes attached to a condenser to lead off liquid
refrigerant, parallel to the mainflow.
BRINE – Any liquid cooled by the refrigerating system and used for the
transmission of heat.
BRINE SYSTEM COOLING – Any system whereby brine, cooled by a

refrigerating system, is circulated through pipes to the point where the
refrigeration is needed.
BUTANE – A hydrocarbon, flammable refrigerant used to a limited extent
in small units.
CALCIUM CHLORIDE – A chemical having the formula CaCl2 which is
in granular form, is used as drier. Soluble in water.
CALCIUM SULPHATE – A solid chemical of the formula CaSO4 which
may be used as a drying agent.
CAPACITY – In a refrigerating machine, it is the heat absorbing capacity per
unit time, usually measured in ton or kcal/hr.
CAPILLARY – A tube with a very small inside diameter, its diameter and
length control the flow of the refrigerant; dividing point between the
high side and the low side of the system.
CARBON – One of the elements used in refrigeration.
CARBONDIOXIDE – One of the earliest compounds used as a refrigerant.
CARBON TETRA CHLORIDE – A liquid having the formula CCl4 (also
known as carbona) which is non -inflammable solvent used for removing
grease and oil and loosening sludges.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR – A compressor in which the
necessary increase in the pressure of the refrigerant vapour being
obtained by imparting a high velocity to it by the rotation of an
impeller.
CHANGE OF STATE – A change from one state to another as from liquid
to solid, from liquid to gas etc.
CHARGE – The amount of refrigerant in a system.
CHARGING CYLINDER – A cylindrical container for refrigerant that has
a calibrated sight glass so that the mechanic can measure the flow of
refrigerant into the air conditioning system.
CHLORINATED FLUORO CARBON – The chemical family into which
air conditioning refrigerants such as refrigerant 12 fall.
CIRCUITS – The flow of a refrigerant through separate rows of tubes rather
than through one single tube.
CLEARANCE VOLUME EFFICIENCY – Ratio of the weight of the

refrigerant circulated by a compressor having no losses except that due
to clearance, to the weight circulated by a perfect machine.
CLOSED SYSTEM – Chilled water from the flash tank is pumped through
a coil to cool air and is then returned to the flash tank.
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE – The ratio of the refrigerating
effect to the heat equivalent of the indicated horse power of the
refrigerant compressor.
COIL – Any cooling element made of pipe or tubing.
COLD STORAGE – A trade or process of preserving perishables on a large
scale by refrigeration.
COMFORT CHART – A psychrometric chart; strictly a chart showing the
effective temperatures.
COMPOUND COMPRESSION – In compound or multistage
compression, the refrigerant is compressed through part of the pressure
range in one compressor (or in one stage of a multistage compressor)
and then passed to a second compressor, or stage, of smaller swept
volume, which carries the compression further.
COMPOUND GAUGE – A typical low pressure test gauge, which has a
scale that indicates both pressure and vacuum.
COMPRESSOR – A device that takes a refrigerant vapour at a low
temperature and pressure and compresses it to a lower volume and
thereby raises it to higher temperature and pressure.
COMPRESSOR CRANKSHAFT SEALS – Prevent air from entering the
compressor, and oil and refrigerant from escaping.
COMPRESSION RATIO – The ratio of two pressures, the absolute
discharge pressure divided by the absolute suction pressure.
COMPRESSION SYSTEM – A refrigerating system in which the pressure
imposing element is mechanically operated.
CONCENTRATORS – Evaporate excess water from brine which has been
diluted by melted ice and frost.
CONDENSATION – Process by which a vapour is changed into a liquid
without changing temperature. Condenses the hot, high pressure
refrigerant vapour from the compressor to a warm, high pressure liquid
which flows to the receiver dehydrator.
CONDENSER (general) – That part of the refrigeration system in which

the refrigerant condenses and in so doing gives off heat.
CONDENSER DUTY – Amount of heat transferred in a given time from
the refrigerant to the cooling medium in the condenser.
CONSTANT PRESSURE VALVE – An automatic expansion valve that holds
the pressure at a constant level regardless of the load.
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE VALVE – A valve responsive to temperature
of thermostatic bulb, of the throttling type, located in suction line of
an evaporator to reduce refrigerating effect on coil to just maintain a
desired temperature.
CONTAINER CAPACITY – The ability of a container to hold the material
the quantity of material which may safely be contained in a container.
COOLING UNIT – A specific air treating combination consisting of means
for air circulation and cooling within the prescribed temperature limits.
COOLING WATER – Water used for condensation of the refrigerant.
COPPER PLATING – Formation of a film of copper usually on compressor
walls, pistons or discharge valves.
CRYOGENICS – Science of producing and applying temperature below –250° F.
CRYOGENIC SUPER CONDUCTOR SYSTEM – Uses helium to cool
conductors to within a few degrees of absolute zero where they offer no
electrical resistance.
CRYOHYDRATE – A eutectic brine mixture of water and any salt, mixed
in proportions to give the lowest temperature.
CYCLE OF REFRIGERATION – A complex course of operation of a
refrigerant back to the starting point, measured in thermodynamic terms,
also used in general for any repeated process for any system.
CYCLING CLUTCH CONTROL SYSTEM – One in which the
compressor is run intermittently to maintain a desired temperature.
DEGREE DAY – A unit, based upon temperature difference and time, used
in specifying the nominal heating load in winter.
DEFROSTING – Removal of accumulated ice from the cooling unit.
DEFROSTING CYCLE – A cycle which permits cooling unit to defrost
during off period.
DEFROSTING EVAPORATOR – Unit in which frost accumulates on

cooling coils when the compressor operates and melts after the
compressor shuts off.
DEHUMIDIFY – To remove water vapour from the atmosphere, to remove
water or liquid from stored goods.
DEHYDRATOR – A device used to remove moisture from the refrigerant.
DESICANT – Material used in a drier to trap moisture from the refrigerant.
Also called drying agent.
DEWAR FLASK – A container which consists of alternate layers of radiation
shields and spacer material in high vacuum.
DEW POINT – That temperature at which the air (space) becomes saturated
with water vapour. When the air is cooled to the dew point, water vapour
can condense into liquid form (provided its latent heat is removed).
DEW POINT THERMOSTAT – A thermostat used in such a way as to
control humidity.
DICHLORODIFLUORO METHANE – The chemical compound known
as Freon 12 or R -12.
DIELECTRIC – Thin insulating material separating two conductor plates
in a capacitor.
DIFFERENTIAL – Difference of temperature or pressure between the on
and off operation of the control.
DIRECT EXPANSION – A system in which the evaporator is located in
the material or space refrigerated or in air circulating passages
communicating with such space.
DIRECT EXPANSION EVAPORATOR – One that contains only enough
liquid to continue boiling as heat is absorbed by it.
DISCHARGE SHUT OFF VALVE – A manual valve installed on the
compressor, which controls the flow of the refrigerant from the cylinder
head of a compressor to the discharge line.
DISPLACEMENT, ACTUAL – The volume of gas at compressor inlet
conditions actually moved in a given time.
DISPLACEMENT, THEORETICAL – The total volume displaced by all
the pistons of a compressor for every stroke during a definite interval,
usually measured in cubicmetre per minute.
DOMESTIC REFRIGERATOR – A refrigerator for home use.

DOUBLE ACTION PISTON COMPRESSOR – A type of compressor
used in automotive A/C systems in which an axial swash plate pressed
to the shaft is used to drive the pistons.
DOUBLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR – An arrangement of two evaporators
such that the vapour from No. 1 is carried over into the tubes of No. 2.
The drain from the first evaporator is led to the hot well and the drain
from the second evaporator is led to the fresh water condenser and
there cooled down to be used by the passengers.
DOUBLE THICKNESS FLARE – Indicates that the flare thickness of a
tube end is made up of two thicknesses of tubing.
DRIER – Device designed to remove moisture from a refrigerant.
DRIERITE – Desicant which operates by chemical action.
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE – The actual temperature of the air as
measured by an ordinary thermometer.
DRY ICE – Frozen carbondioxide, sold under the trade names, such as
CARDICE and DRICOLD. This has the property of passing directly
from the solid to the gaseous state without becoming a liquid.
DRY TYPE EVAPORATOR – An evaporator of the continuous tube type
where refrigerant from a pressure reducing device is fed into one end
and the suction line is connected to the outlet end.
EBULLATOR – A device inserted in flooded evaporator tubes to prevent
evaporator from being oil bound.
EJECTOR – A device which utilizes static pressure to build up a high fluid
velocity in a restricted area to obtain a lower static pressure at that point
so that fluid from another source may be drawn in.
ELECTROMAGNETIC CLUTCH MECHANISM – Device which when
engaged, turns the compressor shaft to start piston movement.
ELECTROPNEUMATIC AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM – A system
in which an adjustable sensing device permits the selection of
comfortable conditions, has two thermistors to monitor and sense both
the outside air and the air in the passenger compartment.
ELIMINATOR PLATES – Protect refrigerated spaces and air from brine
spray.
EMULSIFICATION – Formation of an emulsion, i.e., a mixture of small

droplets of two or more liquids which do not dissolve with each other.
EQUALIZERS – Connections used with thermostatic expansion valves when
the superheat setting of the expansion valve cannot control the amount
of refrigerant which flows through the coil.
EQUILIBRIUM – Condition existing at saturation, the molecules of the
refrigerant in liquid state are changing into the vapour state as rapidly as
vapour molecules are changing into the liquid state.
EUTECTIC POINT – The lowest freezing point (temperature obtainable)
when the concentration of solid in a solution is increased gradually.
EUTECTIC SOLUTION – A solution which can be made so that it freezes
and melts at a specific temperature.
EVACUATE – To discharge refrigerant from the air conditioning system
into the atmosphere or a holding tank, and then to vacuum pump the
system in order to boil away any moisture.
EVAPORATOR – Device in the low pressure side of a refrigeration system
through which the unwanted heat flows; absorbs the heat in the system
in order that it may be moved or transferred to the condenser.
EVAPORATOR (automotive ac system) – Device that cools, dehumidifies,
and takes the pollen and dust from the air before it enters the passenger
compartment.
EVAPORATOR DUTY – The amount of heat which can be removed by
the evaporator i.e., the amount of refrigeration accomplished.
EVAPORATOR PRESSURE (temperature) – CONTROL VALVE
SYSTEM – Uses either a suction throttling valve, a pilot operated
absolute valve, or an evaporator pressure regulator valve to control
evaporator temperature.
EVAPORATOR REGULATOR VALVES – Provide independent
temperature control for each evaporator.
EXPANSION VALVE – Metering device which provides a restriction so that
there is a steady flow of refrigerant and also maintains the difference of
pressure required to change the state of the refrigerant.
FLARING – Method of forming or preparing the ends of tubing to connect
them directly with or through the use of fittings.
FLEXING DISC VALVE – One type of valve commonly used in

compressors. It is a one way valve.
FLOODED EVAPORATOR – One that is full of liquid refrigerant at all
times. Additional liquid is permitted to enter only to replace that which
boils away.
FREEZER BURN – Surface damage due to excessive drying during freezing.
FREON 12 – Refrigerant used in automatic air conditioners. Also known as
Refrigerant -12 and R-12.
FROST HEAVE – Refers to the movement of ground as a result of being
frozen because of insufficient insulation underneath a cold store.
FUSES – Devices used for protection of electrical circuits, either cartridge or
plug type.
GAS VOLUME CONTROL – Used to regulate the amount of gas needed
to produce certain desired temperatures and conditions in domestic
absorption automatic control refrigerators.
GROUNDING – Protection against static charges which sometimes build
upon operating equipment.
HALIDE LEAK DETECTOR – Operates on acetylene to detect vapour
leaks of halogen refrigerants.
HEAT OF RESPIRATION – Heat given off by cargo.
HELIUM LIQUEFIER REFRIGERATOR – The complete system for
liquefying helium.
HERMETIC COMPRESSOR – The compressor unit in which the motor
and the compressor are manufactured as a single self contained unit
housed within a casing, the electric motor is in contact, therefore with
the refrigerant.
HIGH PRESSURE CUTOUT – A pressure operated switch which stops
the machine on the rise of pressure to a level approaching danger, and
usually has to be reset by hand.
HIGH SIDE FLOAT – Metering system which locates the float and needle
valve on the high pressure side of the refrigeration system.
HOLD OVER PLATES – Containers that hold the eutectic and provide
refrigeration.
HUMIDITY – Moisture in air.
HUMIDISTAT – Operating control which reacts to variation in humidity.

ICE MAKING CAPACITY – Ability of a refrigerating system to make ice,
starting with water at room temperature.
INDICATED HORSE POWER – Rate at which work is usefully expended
in the compressor i.e., actually utilized in compressing the refrigerant
vapour and expelling it from the compressor.
INDUCTIVE DEVICE – Designed to convert electrical energy to magnetic
and then to mechanical energy.
INSULATION – Any material that effectively slows down the transfer of heat.
INSULATORS – Materials that normally deter the flow of electrons.
LATENT HEAT – Heat energy which causes a change of state without any
change of temperature.
LIMITING CONTROLS – Safety controls.
LIQUID LINE CHARGING VALVE – Used for high side charging.
LIQUID LINE SHUT OFF VALVE – Manual valve installed in liquid line
near condenser well to shut off flow of refrigerant between the condenser
and the liquid line.
LIQUID NITROGEN SHIELD – At room temperature, it can absorb any
heat leakage from outside and reduce temperature between itself and
cryogenic refrigerant surrounding the cable.
LIQUID NITROGEN SYSTEM – A non-mechanical refrigeration system
for transport use.
LITHIUM BROMIDE – Used in combination with water in absorption
cooling systems.
LOW PRESSURE CONTROL – An electric switch responsive to pressure,
connected into the low pressure part of a refrigeration system. Usually
closes at high and opens at low pressure.
LOW PRESSURE CUTOFF SWITCH – Senses system pressure only, wired
in series with the magnetic clutch.
LOW SIDE FLOAT – Metering system which locates a float in the low
pressure side of the refrigeration system.
LOW TEMPERATURE TRANSPORT – Refrigerated trucks that maintain
temperatures in the range of 0°C and below.
MANIFOLDING – In direct expansion or dry evaporators, the method of

circulating the refrigerant through separate rows of tubes.
MANUAL CONTROL SYSTEM – An A/C system in which the driver of
an automotive vehicle selects heating and cooling by use of a lever which
mixes warm and cold air to desired temperature.
METERING DEVICES – Restrict the flow of the refrigerant from the high
to the low side, regulate the flow of the refrigerant according to the
needs of the system.
METHYLENE CHLORIDE (CH2Cl2) – A halogenated hydrocarbon which
is considered a safe refrigerant.
MODULATING CONTROLS – Provide for variations by steps as
contrasted to the off and on operation of the refrigeration systems with
ordinary controls.
MODULATING THERMOSTAT – Used to operate dampers on DX coils
and valves for varying the flow of chilled water.
MODULATING THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE – Varies the
capacity of the valve in response to variations in load on the system.
MOISTURE VAPOUR SEAL – A tight barrier placed outside the insulation
to prevent pushing of moisture through the insulation by vapour
pressure.
MULTIPLE UNIT INSTALLATION – One in which two or more
evaporators in different refrigerators are operated from one compressor,
or vice versa.
NONFLEXING RING PLATE TYPE VALVE – One type of valve
commonly used in compressors.
NONFROSTING EVAPORATORS – Use only the thermostatic expansion
valve type of refrigerant control, operate at a temperature close to
freezing.
NONMECHANICAL REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS – Those that obtain
the required high and low pressures by some method other than a
mechanical compressor.
OIL FAILURE RELAY – An oil pressure switch inserted in the compressor
lubricating system and wired to shut down the machine in the event of
an oil failure.
OIL SEPARATOR – Device used to separate oil from the refrigerant gas,
returning the oil to the compressor and allowing the refrigerant to
continue on its circuit through the refrigerating system.
OPEN SYSTEM – Chilled water is sprayed into the air to be cooled and it is
then collected in the air washer tank and returned to the flash tank and
is again cooled.
OPERATING CONTROLS – Sensitive to changes in the desired conditions
such as temperature (or its related pressure) and humidity.
pH VALUE – Logarithm to base 10 of the reciprocal of the concentration of
hydrogen ions. Measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
PRESSOSTAT – An automatic switch connected by a small bore tube to the
suction of the compressor, stopping the latter when the pressure falls to a
certain value and starting it again after a definite rise in pressure.
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE – Used to minimize the possibility of explosion
when air temperature surrounding a refrigeration system may rise to a
point where it causes the pressure of the refrigerant gas to increase to a
danger point.
PRIMARY REFRIGERANT – A substance used as the working fluid in the
vapour compression cycle, as distinct from a secondary refrigerant, which
in some cases is used as an intermediate conveyor of heat between the
substance to be cooled and the primary refrigerant.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART – A graph, the coordinates of which are usually
either dry bulb temperature and absolute humidity, or enthalpy (total
heat) and absolute humidity. Families of lines are there showing constant
dry bulb temperatures, wet bulb temperatures, enthalpies, absolute
humidities, relative or percentage humidities and specific volumes.
PURGING – A method of removing air and moisture from a refrigerating
system by means of the refrigerant gas pushing some of the air ahead of
it and out of the system.
REFRIGERANT – Substance which is circulated in a refrigeration system to
transfer heat.
REFRIGERANT FAMILY – Safest group of refrigerants produced by
manipulating the atoms of carbon tetrachloride with those of fluorine
and hydrogen.
REFRIGERATING CAPACITY – The ability of a system to remove heat

as compared with the cooling effect produced by the melting of ice,
expressed as a rate of heat removal, kcal/ hr or tons/ 24 hrs.
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM – The part of the refrigeration/ air
conditioning system that includes compressor, condenser, evaporator,
control valves and switches and tubing. It absorbs the heat from air in
the duct housing/space and transfers it to the outdoors.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY – The percentage of moisture in the air compared
with the maximum amount that the air can hold, at the prevailing
temperature. Also expressed as the ratio of the pressure of the water
vapour present to the maximum possible water pressure at the prevailing
temperature.
RESISTIVE CRYOGENIC SYSTEM – Uses nitrogen to cool the electrical
conductors to temperatures where their electrical resistance is very low.
REVERSE CYCLE REFRIGERATION – Uses rejected heat to produce
warmth.
ROTARY COMPRESSOR – Compressor which consists of a cylindrical
casing containing a shaft whose axis is eccentric to that of the cylinder,
the shaft carries a rotor having radial slots in which blades slide and the
tip of the blades press against the casing by their inertia or with the aid
of springs.
SAFETY HEAD – Unit which is not fixed to the top of the cylinder but is
held down by heavy springs and allows the passage of liquid refrigerant
or oil, which it does by lifting bodily whenever the pressure in the
cylinder becomes abnormally high.
SEALED UNIT – The compressor unit in which the compressor, usually
rotary, and the driving motor are contained within a welded steel shell.
SECONDARY REFRIGERANT – Chilled liquid like water which is
circulated to distant units where the air is to be cooled in individual
rooms.
SEMI HERMETIC COMPRESSOR – The compressor unit in which the
motor and compressor are a single unit, but the motor is detachable
from the compressor and therefore capable of field repairs.
SHELL AND COIL CONDENSER – A cylindrical shell, usually vertical,
containing a water coil, and within the shell the refrigerant is condensed.
SHELL AND TUBE EVAPORATOR – An evaporator having a cylindrical

casing, containing a number of tubes through which the liquid to be
cooled flows and the refrigerant is contained within the casing.
SHRADER VALVE – A spring loaded valve through which a connection can
be made to a refrigeration system, also used in vehicle tyres.
SIGHT GLASS – In a car air conditioner, a viewing glass or window set in
the refrigerant line, usually in the top of the receiver dehydrator, the
sight glass allows a visual check of the refrigerant passing from the receiver
to the evaporator.
SILICA GEL – Desicant which operates by adsorption of water molecules.
SINGLE THICKNESS FLARE – The part of the tubing that forms the
flare is the thickness of the tubing.
SPRAY HEADER – Perforated pipe mounted along the ceiling of the cargo
compartment of a transport.
STEAM JET SYSTEM – Uses a device in which the extremely rapid flow of
a vapour through a narrow tube reduces the pressure and permits
evaporation of a liquid, produces a cooling effect.
STRONG AQUA – An ammonia and water solution with a concentration
of almost 30 per cent ammonia, used in ammonia absorption cooling
system.
SUCTION LINE – Runs from evaporator to compressor, returns the heat
laden gases from the evaporator.
SUCTION SERVICE VALVE – Manual shut off valve installed on the
compressor. Also called suction valve.
SUCTION THROTTLE VALVE – The compressor is in continuous
operation and the valve is opened and closed by sensing the actual
evaporator operating pressure.
SULPHURDIOXIDE – An old refrigerant that was used to recharge units.
SUPERHEATING – The rise in temperature resulting from the addition of heat
to the refrigerant vapour either in the evaporator or in the suction line.
SUPERHEAT SWITCH – Designed to protect the A/C system compressor
against damage when the refrigerant charge is partially or totally lost.
SUPER INSULATION – Alternate layers of radiation shields and spacer
material operating in a high vacuum.
SURGE CHAMBER – A drum or container into which liquid enters from

the metering device in order to recirculate the refrigerant in a flooded
evaporator.
SWAGING – A means of shaping copper tubing so that two pieces may be
joined without the use of a fitting.
TEMPERATURE CONTROL – An electric switch responsive to
temperature of thermostatic bulb or element.
TERMINAL DEWARS – Insulated containers used to prevent heat transfer
and permit the individual conductor phases to be connected into
thermally and electrically graded pot head assemblies.
THERMAL LIMITER FUSES – Designed to protect the A/C system
compressor against damage when the refrigerant charge is partially or
totally lost.
THERMOELECTRIC REFRIGERATION – Depends upon passing
electrical energy to a couple through two dissimilar semiconductors.
THERMOPNEUMATIC AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM – System
which uses the mechanical principles of the thermostat to monitor
vacuum motors which adjust the air valves and switches.
THERMOSTAT – An automatic switch, the opening and closing of which
is actuated by change of temperature.
THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE – Control valve which maintains
constant superheat in the evaporator, also used for the temperature
control, operates on increased pressure resulting from a rise in
temperature. Also called THERMOSTATIC VALVE.
THROTTLING VALVE – Dampens fluctuations of pressure gauge and
provides a way to close off the port entirely.
TON REFRIGERATION – A ton refrigeration (TR) is that rate of removal
of heat which would transform water at 0°C into ice at the same
temperature at the rate of one ton in every 24 hours.
VACUUM PUMP – A device used to evacuate systems in preparation for
charging them with a refrigerant.
VALVE RETAINER – A device which limits the lift of the valve.
WATER CONTROL VALVE – Used in A/C systems to regulate the flow of
coolant to the heater core.
WATER ICE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM – Heat is absorbed as ice melts,

producing the desired cooling effect.
WET BULB TEMPERATURE – The temperature read, by a wet bulb
thermometer, this is an ordinary thermometer the bulb of which is
wetted by being surrounded by a sheath of muslin kept wet by pure
water.

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ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2874-2

PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD

This revised edition of the book “HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL

This handbook has been prepared to meet the need of an up-to-date

Preface to the Second Edition v

ACCURATE – Without error within tolerances allowed, precise, correct,

BACKLASH - The clearance or amount of movement between the tooth

CHAMFER – To bevel or remove the sharp edge of a machined part.

RECESS – A groove cut below the normal surface of a workpiece.

ABRASIVE – A natural or artificial material such as sand stone, emery,

ALNICOS – Alnicos materials are composed mainly of aluminium, nickel,

structure, is the solvent. This is stable only within a particular range of

CALCIUM BORIDE – An alloy of calcium and boron, containing about

COMPOSITE FIBRES – The strands of material used as reinforcement

DIAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES – Actually set up fields that oppose

ELEMENT – A substance which cannot be chemically broken down to

FERROMANGANESE – An alloy of iron and manganese containing from

FREE FERRITE – Ferrite that is structurally separate and distinct as may be

INGOT IRON – Commercially pure open hearth iron.

LACQUER – A quick drying automotive paint.

MAGNESIUM ALLOY – Alloy containing at least 85% of magnesium and

METAL – An opaque lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good

(addition of tin improves the resistance of the alloy to corrosion by sea

PEARLITE – The laminar mixture of ferrite and cementite in slowly cooled

PLASTIC – A certain group of natural and synthetic resins and their

RADIUM – A radio active element. It is found in nature as radium 226,

SEMISTEEL – Cast iron to which a small proportion of mild steel or

SLURRY – A watery mixture of insoluble material such as mud, lime or

STEATITE – Steatite is the name given to a fired ceramic product which

TUNGSTEN CARBIDE – An iron gray powder composed of carbon and

ACICULAR STRUCTURE – A microstructure characterized by needle

the specimen. A number is derived by measuring the indentation with

COLD SHORT – A condition of brittleness existing in some metals at

life than would be encountred as a result of either the repeated or

DENSITY – The ratio of the mass of a body to its volume.

FATIGUE STRENGTH – The amount of stress that can be applied to a

HARDNESS – The property of metal to resist being permanently deformed.

rupturing or developing a marked increase in resistance to change of

OXIDATION – The slow or rapid reaction of oxygen with other elements,

PROPORTIONAL LIMIT – Proportional limit is the value of stress at

STIFFNESS – The ability of a metal or shape to resist elastic deformation.

BRITTLENESS. (2) In non-ferrous metals, temper is a condition

TRANSITION TEMPERATURE – The temperature at which normally

AGING OF A PERMANENT MAGNET – It is the process of normal or

BRAZING – Joining two pieces of metal without melting either one by

CENTRIFUGING – Casting of molten metals by using centrifugal force

DRAW FILING – Finishing operation in filing during which the file is

FULL AUTOMATIC – Process in which all phases, once started, are

HOOKER PROCESS – It is usually a cold extrusion process and is commonly

LIMITS OF ACCURACY – Under a limit system, the workman aims at

PIERCING – Producing holes in a blank by driving a punching tool into

SEASONING – Process by which the internal stresses existing in a piece of

SLUSH DIE CASTING – Casting process which involves the filling of a

TAPPING – Operation of producing an internal thread by means of a tap.

UPSET FORGING – The process of increasing the cross-section of stock at

ACCELERATING PUMP – A small cylinder and piston fitted to some

the workpiece, the function of the operator consists of loading or taking

CIRCULATING PUMP – The term applied to cooling water/ lubricating

DYNAMOMETER – A device for absorbing the power output of an engine

HEAT EXCHANGER – A device used to cool a fluid by transferring heat.

MACHINE – A mechanical device, mechanism, or apparatus which transmits